REESE  LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

Receired 
Accessions  No  2, M&9       Shelf  No. 


ON 

THE  AEEANGEMENT,  CAEE,  AND  OPERATION 


OF 


WOOD-WOEKIM  FACTORIES 
AND  MACHINERY; 


FORMING 


A  COMPLETE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 


BY  J.  KICHAEDS, 

MECHANICAL  ENGINEER,   AUTHOR  OF  'A   TREATISE  ON  WOOD- WORKING  MACHINES.' 


NEW    YOEK: 
E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,  446,  BECOME  STKEET. 

LONDON : 
48,  CHARING  CROSS. 

1873. 


[Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  1873,  by  John  Richards,  in 
the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington.^ 


PREFACE. 


IN  the  'Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Operation  of 
Wood-working  Machines,'  it  was  necessary  to  introduce 
a  large  number  of  expensive  engravings,  and  to  treat  of 
many  things  not  directly  connected  with  the  processes  of 
wood  conversion,  but  relating  entirely  to  the  construction 
of  machines.  This,  while  it  added  to  the  value  of  the 
work  for  engineers  and  machinists,  at  the  same  time 
extended  its  cost,  and  placed^  it  c  beyond  the  means  of 
machine  operators  and  wobd  mechanics  generally;  be- 
sides, the  plan  of  the  work  did  not  include  the  practical 
details  of  shop  manipulation. 

In  view  of  this  fact,  and  further  to  promote  the  de- 
velopment of  wood  manufacture,  it  has  been  considered 
expedient  to  supplement  the  *  Treatise  on  the  Construc- 
tion and  Operation  of  Wood-working  Machines,'  with  a 
shorter  one,  directed  to  their  care  and  management,  in- 
cluding the  plans  of  arranging  and  equipping  factories 
for  wood  work,  and  particularly  the  details  with  which 
the  practical  workman  has  to  deal. 

The  work  is  mainly  based  upon  American  practice, 
which  can  hardly  detract  from  its  usefulness  in  other 

a2 


IV  PBEFACE. 

countries.  The  wood  interest  is  more  extended  in  America 
than  elsewhere,  and  we  have  every  reason  to  assume,  that 
with  our  present  facilities  of  intercourse,  wood  conversion, 
like  other  manufacturing  processes,  will  become  analogous 
and  uniform,  as  it  progresses  and  improves. 


J.  RICHARDS. 


10,  JOHN  STREET,  ADELPHI,  LONDON, 
JAN.,  1873. 


INTRODUCTION. 


AT  the  present  day  it  may  be  fairly  claimed  that  machines 
have  supplanted  hand  labour  in  working  wood. 

Year  by  year  improvements  have  gone  on,  until  bench 
work  and  hand  skill  have  become  comparatively  unim- 
portant elements  in  wood  manufacture  ;  and,  as  Professor 
Willis  remarked  before  the  Society  of  Arts,  1852,  "  no- 
thing remains  to  be  done  by  hand,  but  to  put  the  com- 
ponent parts  together."  None,  except  those  who  have 
learned  their  trades  when  and  where  machines  were 
not  used,  can  realize  this  change.  You  may  tell  the 
apprentice  of  to-day  about  going  out  through  the  snow 
to  a  board-pile,  selecting  your  stuff,  carrying  it  in,  and 
after  scraping  off  the  snow  in  winter,  or  sweeping  off 
the  dust  in  summer,  laying  out  the  stuff  with  a  chalk- 
line,-  and  straight-edge,  ripping  out  the  job  by  hand, 
setting  it  about  the  stove  to  dry,  and  then  dressing  it 
up  with  a  jack  plane.  You  may  tell  him  of  mortising 
by  hand,  cutting  tenons  and  shoulders,  with  a  back- 
saw,  and  he  will  look  at  you  with  an  incredulous  stare. 
No  wonder;  for  this  sort  of  thing  has  passed  away, 
and  with  it,  we  are  happy  to  say,  some  of  the  hardest 
labour  that  ever  was  dignified  with  the  name  of  me- 
chanical. It  was  mechanical,  nevertheless,  and  called 
for  the  continual  exercise  of  judgment  and  skill ;  from 
the  cutting  out  to  the  cleaning  off,  it  was  a  kind  of 
race  between  brains  and  muscle,  in  which  brains  some- 


VI  INTRODUCTION. 

times  conquered.  Many  a  time,  as  older  hand  workmen 
will  remember,  would  a  small  man,  without  that  muscular 
strength  that  seemed  to  be  the  main  element  in  his  work, 
have  earned  his  dollar  or  two  dollars  more  at  the  end  of 
the  week  than  his  stronger  competitor,  simply  by  his 
superior  hand  skill,  superior  judgment,  and  superior  tools. 
But  now  machines  do  the  work,  and  the  main  business  of 
the  operative  is  to  take  care  of,  guide,  and  direct  them. 
The  muscular  work  is  gone;  the  brain  work  remains. 
We  cannot  quite  say  that  our  occupation  is,  like  Othello's, 
gone,  but  it  is  greatly  changed — from  hand  operation, 
it  has  become  machine  operation,  and  hence  the  need  for 
this  little  work. 

Machine  operating  is  a  trade — not  an  ordinary  trade,  but 
one  of  great  intricacy,  and  unlike  almost  any  other ;  it  is 
one  that  cannot  be  completely  learned  even  in  a  lifetime. 

A  man  endowed  with  a  strong  natural  capacity  may, 
during  a  long  and  diversified  experience,  become  a  pro- 
ficient and  successful  operator  of  wood  machines,  but  the 
incessant  changes  and  improvements  that  are  going  on 
in  machines  and  processes,  together  with  the  arduous 
nature  of  his  work,  are  more  than  enough  to  take  up  his 
time  and  his  abilities.  Month  after  month,  and  year  after 
year,  he  sees  that  which  he  has  to  learn,  grow  and  expand 
until  he  almost  despairs  of  mastering  it.  He  is  not 
a  mechanic  with  a  trade  in  the  usual  sense ;  but  is  a 
mechanic  of  many  trades.  The  duties  discharged  by  a 
machine  operator  in  America  would  be  and  are  in  Europe 
divided  up  into  half-a-dozen  different  callings ;  there  are 
for  instance  the  sawyer,  the  filer,  the  planer,  the  jig  sawyer, 
finisher,  and  others,  involving  a  division  of  labour  which 
would  be  very  far  from  producing  the  results  we  have 
in  our  wood-working  establishments  in  America,  where 


INTRODUCTION.  Vll 

the  machine  operator  must  be  a  bench  workman,  under- 
stand all  wood-machine  operation,  must  be  a  machinist, 
not  only  one  that  can  chip  and  file,  but  must  know  the 
theory  of  constructing  and  repairing  machines ;  he  must 
be  a  millwright,  not  an  old  time  "  whittler "  who  could 
pare  for  a  week  on  half-a-dozen  wooden  cogs  of  a  crown 
wheel,  but  a  millwright  who  can  lay  out  shafting,  calcu- 
late speeds,  build  wooden  drums  and  supports,  and  do  it 
in  a  rapid  and  thorough  manner;  in  short,  be  proficient 
in  the  most  difficult  of  millwright  work.  Thus  the  wood 
workman,  in  escaping  the  muscular  part  of  his  calling,  has 
only  added  to  the  mental  part;  but  he  has  at  the  same 
time  the  assurance  that  the  change  dignifies  his  business, 
and  leads  to  better  pay,  which  has  in  all  times  and  all 
places  corresponded  more  to  the  mental  than  the  physical 
part  of  man's  labour. 

Nearly  every  mechanical  trade  has  its  "Handbook," 
"  Manual,"  or  "  Guide,"  based  upon  the  practice  of 
skilled  men,  and  containing  rules  founded  on  experience, 
which  have  been  of  great  use  in  giving  information  to 
workmen.  To  argue  the  merit  of  such  books  is  super- 
fluous. In  every  country  the  advancement  of  mechanic 
art  has  been  largely  if  not  mainly  indebted  to  the  dis- 
semination of  technical  literature  of  this  kind.  A  book 
relating  to  any  branch  of  industry  is,  or  ought  to  be,  but 
the  experience  of  some  person,  given  with  opinions  and 
rules  deduced  from  that  experience,  and  is  more  valuable 
than  oral  instruction  because  more  carefully  given,  can 
be  often  referred  to,  and  used  by  a  greater  number  of 
people.  There  has  been  in  time  past,  and  there  is  still, 
too  much  of  a  feeling  that  books  cannot  deal  directly  with 
practice,  and  relate  to  theory  only  ;  and  further,  that 
theory  and  practice  are  not  only  different  elements  in 


Vlll  INTRODUCTION. 

mechanics,  but  in  a  measure  antagonistic  and  opposed  to 
each  other.  The  further  we  go  back,  the  more  we  find 
of  this  spirit,  which  has  grown  out  of  a  variety  of  reasons, 
among  which  we  will  name  the  imperfection  or  im- 
practicable character  of  certain  books  prepared  by  those 
who  were  only  versed  in  theory,  and  did  not  understand 
practice  as  well.  Again,  want  of  knowledge  and  ap- 
preciation of  the  true  relations  between  theory  and 
practice ;  and  the  general  want  of  both  a  knowledge  of, 
and  attention  to  principles,  has  led  to  the  same  result. 
We  therefore,  without  fear  of  error,  may  claim  that  the 
popular  estimate  of  text-books  is  in  a  degree  wrong.  We 
take  up  a  book  devoted  to  some  art  with  which  we  are 
familiar,  and  find  the  author  has  made  a  blunder  on  some 
particular  point  which  we  understand  better  than  he  does, 
and  at  once  conclude  that  the  book  is  of  no  use;  but 
read  on,  the  author  may  make  ten  successive  mistakes 
and  then  give  some  useful  idea,  that  is  new  to  the  reader, 
and  worth  twenty  times  the  cost  of  the  book.  Besides, 
the  too  common  idea,  especially  with  young  mechanics,  is 
to  regard  as  wrong  all  that  differs  from  their  own  opinions 
and  practice.  These  things  are  mentioned  as  operating 
against  the  good  that  class  text-books  may  do;  but  still 
the  fact  remains,  that  to  such  books  we  have  been  in  the 
past  indebted,  and  to  them  we  must  in  the  future  look  as 
a  principal  means  of  disseminating  technical  knowledge. 

We  have  said  that  nearly  all  mechanical  trades  have 
been  developed  by,  and  have,  their  text-books.  Can  anyone 
tell  why  wood  manufactures  have  had  no  such  text-books  ? 
or  rather,  why  wood  working  by  machinery  has  had  no 
books  of  any  kind?  This  is  the  more  remarkable  in 
America,  where  the  wood-working  interest  is  so  extensive, 
and  where  at  least  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  people  are 


INTRODUCTION.  IX 

concerned  in  wood  manufactures.  So  long  as  the  fact  is 
assured,  the  reason. is  not  important,  except  as  it  may  tend 
to  mend  the  matter  in  future. 

We  may  say,  that  as  changes  and  improvements  in 
machines  have  been  so  rapid  text-books  could  not  do 
much  good ;  that  the  art  had  no  scientific  base  admitting 
rules  that  could  be  of  general  application ;  and  that  the 
operations  were  too  diversified  in  different  branches  to 
be  treated  under  a  general  head,  with  other  excuses  ;  but 
the  fact  still  remains,  without  a  sufficient  reason,  that 
wood  manufactures  have  been  greatly  neglected,  and  that 
much  that  might  have  been  done  has  not  been  done. 
In  future,  if  the  art  is  to  keep  up  and  maintain  its 
place  as  one  of  the  most  important  among  American 
manufactures,  it  must,  like  metal  work,  textile  fabrics, 
engineering,  and  other  interests,  have  a  literature  con- 
sisting of  text-books  for  operators  and  manufacturers,  rules 
and  formulas  for  constructors,  and  a  general  system  to 
guide,  in  the  arrangement  of  factories,  the  operation  and 
care  of  machines  and  like  matters. 

As  to  how  far  a  text-book,  or  rather  a  handbook,  may 
be  of  general  application  in  wood  work  is  confessedly  a 
question  of  difficulty,  and  this  should  be  considered  in  any 
estimate  placed  upon  what  is  written  upon  the  subject ;  but 
there  is  still  this  argument  in  favour  of  having  it  relate  to 
wood  work  in  general,  that  the  whole  tendency  of  shop 
manipulation  is  to  a  uniformity  of  processes  and  machines, 
and  the  more  of  the  work  there  is  performed  by  machines, 
the  stronger  the  analogy  between  different  branches ;  and 
also,  as  machines  approach  nearer  and  nearer  to  a  standard 
form  of  construction  for  the  general  purposes  of  planing, 
sawing,  mortising,  and  so  on,  the  more  uniform  will  be 
these  processes.  In  short,  the  machines  used  for  such  pur- 


INTRODUCTION. 


poses  as  joinery,  cabinet  making,  carriage  making,  are 
becoming  similar,  except  as  to  strength  and  capacity, 
which  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  when  we  reflect  that  the 
one  general  principle  throughout  is  cutting  with  sharp 


Hoping  to  contribute  something  to  such  a  desirable  end, 
this  little  treatise  has  been  prepared.  It  is  based  directly 
upon  American  practice,  which  is  peculiar,  and  could  not 
be  aided  by  text-books  arranged  for,  and  with  reference  to 
practice  in,  older  countries,  where  labour  is  cheaper  and 
the  skill  less ;  where  hand  labour  yet  maintains  an 
important  place,  and  will  no  doubt  for  a  long  time  to 
come. 

It  must  be  remembered  that "  Handbooks,"  "  Manuals," 
and  text-books  generally,  are  compilations  to  a  great 
extent  from  more  elaborate  and  scientific  treatises  relating 
to  the  same  subject,  and  that  authors  have  but  little  to  do 
beyond  condense,  simplify,  and  arrange  them.  In  the 
present  case,  however,  it  is  different.  One  might  look 
in  vain  to  find  anything  to  assist  in  the  preparation 
of  a  treatise  on  wood  manufacturing,  if  we  except  the 
writer's  own  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Operation 
of  Wood-working  Machines. 

The  writer  therefore  sets  out  on  this  job  with  the 
expectation  of  having  to  furnish  the  material  as  well 
as  to  do  the  work.  It  will  consist  mainly  of,  and  be 
founded  on,  his  own  experience,  which  he  trusts  has  been 
extensive  and  successful  enough,  to  afford  much  that  will 
be  useful  to  the  reader. 

We  conclude  this  Introduction  by  further  reminding  the 
reader  that  in  most  mechanical  trades  a  handbook  would 
relate  to  processes  alone ;  but  for  reasons  already  given,  a 
book  for  machine  operators  in  wood  manufactures  must  be 


INTRODUCTION.  XI 

more  than  this,  or  else  fail  to  be  of  much  use.  It  must  to 
some  extent  treat  of  the  construction  of  machines,  the 
arrangement  of  wood  manufactories,  the  power  to  drive 
them,  the  handling  of  material,  of  all  that  the  machine 
hand  has  to  deal  with.  As  his  calling  is  a  combination  of 
trades,  so  must  this  book  relate  to  a  diversity  of  subjects. 
There  is  but  little  fear  of  going  outside  of  what  an  ope- 
rator has  to  do  and  know,  for  it  comprises  nearly  all  that 
is  carried  on  in  wood-working  shops  except  the  accounts, 
and  often  includes  a  liberal  share  in  that  department. 
With  this  fact  in  view,  we  have  but  little  fear  of  getting 
wide  of  the  subject,  and  are  quite  confident  that  although 
we  may  discuss  things  which  the  Title  would  hardly 
reach,  we  shall  not  go  beyond  what  either  belongs  to  his 
business  or  is  of  interest  to  the  operator  of  wood-working 
machinery. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY| 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WOOD-WORKING  FACTORIES. 

WOOD-WOKKING  establishments  in  America  are  divided 
mainly  into  those  directed  to  the  preparation  of  builders' 
material,  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  and  carriage  work. 

The  first  comprehend  planing  mills,  door,  sash,  and 
blind  factories,  and  moulding  mills. 

The  second,  all  classes  of  furniture  making,  including 
chairs  and  turned  work  generally,  with  musical  instrument 
cases. 

The  third,  carriage  work  for  railways  and  road  traffic, 
with  framing  for  agricultural  implements,  a  class  of  work 
that  is  analogous  and,  as  a  rule,  performed  on  the  same 
kind  of  machines. 

Outside  these  three  general  divisions  there  are  turn- 
ing shops,  bending  works,  handle  factories,  tool  factories, 
and  similar  establishments,  in  which  the  processes  and 
machines  are  more  or  less  special. 

Wood  manufacture,  as  a  process  unlike  most  others 
for  the  conversion  of  material,  is  confined  to  a  single 
operation,  that  of  cutting,  which  will  be  treated  of  under 
another  head.  The  principles  being  nearly  alike  in  the 
action  of  all  the  different  wood  machines,  it  follows  that 
the  shops  are,  or  can  be,  very  much  on  the  same  general 
plan  for  the  several  divisions  of  work  which  we  have 
named.  The  machines  and  the  material  are  nearly 

B 


A  THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 

the  same  for  general  woodwork ;  and  if  we  leave  out 
timber  cutting,  of  which  it  is  not  proposed  to  say  any- 
thing in  the  present  work,  rules  that  will  apply  to  a 
planing  mill,  or  furniture  factory,  will  not  be  far  wrong 
for  a  carriage  shop,  or  a  car  shop. 

An  ordinary  wood-working  factory  may  be  a  plain 
rectangular  building,  not  less  than  48  feet  wide  inside ; 
long  enough  and  high  enough  to  accommodate  the  require- 
ments of  the  business.  The  writer  in  his  experience  has 
found  48  feet  an  advantageous  width,  and  would  recom- 
mend it  never  exceeding  60  feet;  for  beyond  this  the 
added  width  will  not  afford  facilities  in  the  same  ratio, 
and  will  increase  the  proportionate  cost  of  a  building.  A 
width  of  50  feet  to  60  feet  will  allow  for  what  we  will 
term  four  lines  of  machine  work,  two  on  each  side,  and 
a  tramway  or  a  wagon  road  in  the  centre. 

The  diagram  given,  Fig.  1,  will  serve  as  an  example  of 
this  arrangement  for  a  jobbing  mill.  The  plan  is  not 
assumed  as  presenting  anything  new,  but  given  rather  for 
the  opposite  reason,  because  it  is  not  new  or  ingenious. 

The  most  important  matter  to  be  guarded  against  in 
making  plans  for  a  new  mill,  is  that  of  intricate  and 
original  designs,  seemingly  presenting  great  advantages 
on  paper,  and  apparently  quite  correct  to  an  architect 
before  building,  but  really  quite  wrong  to  a  foreman  or 
manager  after  the  building  is  completed. 

Fig.  1  is  on  a  scale  approximately  as  1  to  400. 

The  plan  here  suggested  is  for  a  country  jobbing  mill 
60  x  120  feet  outside  dimensions,  having  two  cross  lines 
of  shafting,  and  equipped  with  machines  requiring  about 
40-horse  power. 

The  lower  story  should  be  13  to  15  feet  high  in  the 
clear,  and  the  countershafts  as  far  as  possible  overhead. 


THE  OPERATORS  HANDBOOK. 


The  arrangement  of  machines  upon  the  floor  is  a  matter 
that  may  be  varied  at  pleasure,  or  to  suit  special  kinds  of 

FIG.  1. 


REFERENCES. 


1.— Office,  14  x  16  feet. 

2. —  Counting  room,  16  x  16  feet. 

3. — Storeroom  for  oil,  tools,  and 
•  supplies,  10  x  16  feet. 

4.— Kepairing    and    tool-dressing 
room. 

5. — Boiler-shed. 

6. — Firing  room. 

7. — Magazine  for  shavings. 

8. —  Steam  chimney. 

9. — Engine-room. 
10. — Steam  furnace. 
11. — Stairway. 
12.— Hoisting  platform. 
13. — Cutting-off  and  jobbing  saw- 
bench. 

14. — Jointing  saw. 
15. — Jobbing  saw. 
16. — Large  flooring  machine. 


17. — Matching  planers  for  jobbing. 
18. — Large  moulding  machine. 
19. — Small  moulding  machine. 
20.— Slitting  saw  bench. 
21.— General  surfacing  planer. 
22. — Splitting  saw  for  siding. 
23. — Resawing  machine. 
24. — Wagon  passage,  or  tramway. 
25.— Grindstones  for  planer-knives 

and  tools. 

26.— Engine  lathe  for  repairing. 
27. — Forge  fire. 

28. — Vice  bench  for  machine  fitting . 
29. — Saw-filing  bench. 
30. — Pumps. 

31. — Main  driving  pulley. 
32.— Engine, 
a  a. — Shafting. 

B   2 


4  THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 

work;  it  cannot  well  be  predicated  upon  an  ideal  plan, 
and  can  be  remedied  by  changing,  if  wrong.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  machines  also  depends  upon  their  number  and 
capacity.  If  in  founding  a  mill  the  equipment  is  not 
complete,  as  is  generally  the  case,  there  is  no  necessity 
for  crowding  and  hampering  machines  to  suit  some 
general  plan  which  may  be  carried  out  in  future,  when 
the  mill  is  fully  equipped ;  it  is  often  more  advantageous 
to  set  machines  temporarily,  moving  them  as  occasion  may 
require,  and  thus  obtaining  more  room,  and  greater  con- 
venience for  the  time  being. 

The  shafting  is  shown  arranged  in  two  lines,  three  are 
often  better  and  more  convenient.  If  three  lines  are  used 
they  will  cost  but  little  more  than  a  single  one  running 
the  other  way  of  the  building,  and  can  have  the  advantage 
of  being  arranged  to  run  at  different  speeds  if  required. 

The  last  shaft,  or  the  one  farthest  from  the  engine,  can 
be  driven  at  a  higher  speed  than  the  other  shafts  to  suit 
joiners'  machines  on  an  upper  floor,  an  arrangement  that 
is  common  in  our  mills ;  joiners'  machines  if  belted  from 
below  will  not  require  a  line  of  shafting  above,  and  a  self- 
supporting  roof  can  be  used,  so  that  the  upper  room  will 
be  clear  of  posts,  adding  greatly  to  both  the  appearance 
and  convenience  of  the  room. 

The  position  of  the  posts  in  the  lower  story  is  not 
marked  in  Fig.  1,  but  they  can  be  arranged  on  each  side 
of  the  central  passage  at  a  distance  apart  that  will  best 
accommodate  the  handling  of  long  stuff,  which  is  an 
important  thing  to  be  considered  about  a  mill  floor. 

In  connection  with  the  plan,  Fig.  1,  the  following  list 
of  dimensions  for  machinery  will  be  of  use  in  making 
plans  for  mills,  even  when  they  may  vary  in  capacity 
from  the  one  assumed : — 


THE  OPERATORS  HANDBOOK.  5 

Steam  engine,  12  inches  diameter,  20  to  24  inches 
stroke,  with  a  speed  of  75  revolutions  a  minute. 

Boiler,  if  double  fl  ued,  44  inches  diameter,  28  feet  long ; 
if  multiflued,  one-fourth  less  heating  surface  will  do. 

Grate  surface,  equal  to  16  square  feet. 

Steam  chimney,  60  feet  high ;  area  of  flue,  500  square 
inches,  fitted  with  air-tight  slide  damper. 

Engine-driving  pulley,  10  feet  diameter,  18  inches  space. 

Line  shafting,  3  inches  diameter  throughout,  to  make 
250  revolutions  a  minute. 

Line-shaft  pulleys,  with  average  diameter  of  36  inches 
and  12  inches  face. 

Average  speed  of  countershafting  750  revolutions  a 
minute. 

Hoisting  platform,  10  x  6  feet. 

As  various  dimensions  will  be  hereafter  considered  under 
separate  heads,  these  are  only  given  to  render  the  diagram 
more  complete. 

For  furniture  and  carriage  manufacture,  and  in  any  case 
where  the  lumber  is  short,  or  is  reduced  to  short  lengths, 
in  working,  the  arrangement  of  machines  must  have  refer- 
ence'rather  to  the  course  of  the  material  through  the 
shop  as  it  is  sawed,  planed,  bored,  and  mortised,  than  to 
providing  room  to  handle  it  in. 

In  the  case  of  a  planing  mill,  a  large  share  of  the  lumber 
worked  is  only  dressed,  or  jointed  and  matched,  and  then 
again  sent  out ;  the  trouble  is  to  find  room  for  the  lumber 
among  the  machines,  and  to  handle  it ;  in  other  words,  to 
get  it  into  and  out  of  the  mill  without  interfering  with 
other  work.  If  flooring  is  regularly  or  continually  made, 
or  if  surfacing  is  continually  going  on,  it  is  useless  to 
provide  room  within  the  main  building  for  storing  either 
the  rough  or  finished  stuff ;  it  should  be  fed  in  through  the 


6 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


walls,  and  passed  out  of  them  as  fast  as  worked,  in  such  a 
manner  as  will  not  interfere  with  other  operations  going 
on  at  the  same  time. 

A  lumber-planing  mill,  where  nothing  but  planing  is 
done,  requires  a  totally  different  arrangement  from  a  mill 
where  joiners' stuff  and  mouldings  are  made,  or  jobbing  done. 

The  main  building  should  be  in  such  cases  about  24  feet 
wide,  with  the  machines  placed  side  by  side  across  the 
building,  and  have  large  doors  opening  opposite  the  feed 
end  of  each  machine,  as  in  Fig.  2. 

The  Figure  is  arranged  on  a  scale  of  1  to  200. 

FIG.  2. 


KEFEKENOES. 


1. — Is  the  main  planing  room. 

2. — The  engine-room. 

3. — Storeroom  for  oil,  tools,  and 
stores. 

4.— Magazine  for  shavings. 

5. — Boiler  fnrnace. 

6. — Storing  shed  for  worked  lum- 
ber. 

7. — Steam  chimney. 

8.— Engine. 


9. — Main  driving  pulley. 

10. — Planing  and  matching  ma- 
chines. 

11. — Surfacing  machine. 

12.— Line  shaft. 

13. — Large  doors  hinged  at  the  top 
to  open  inward. 

14.— Portholes  for  planed  stuff  to 
pass  through. 

15. — Ash-pit  to  the  steam  furnace. 


THE   OPERATOR  S   HANDBOOK.  7 

This  plan  in  substance  has  been  adopted  in  some  of  the 
larger  mills  about  Chicago,  and  has  many  advantages  to 
recommend  it  for  a  mill  that  is  devoted  to  lumber  dressing 
alone. 

It  affords  a  mill  of  great  capacity  with  but  a  limited 
investment  in  the  building,  and  the  most  economical 
arrangement  of  shafting  and  belts ;  besides,  the  plan  is  as 
safe  from  fire  as  it  is  possible  to  arrange  one.  The  lumber 
is  mainly  handled  out  of  doors,  which  gives  unlimited 
room  for  storing,  loading,  and  unloading  it  from  wagons 
or  railway  trains. 

The  main  mill-room  and  the  engine-room  should  be 
thoroughly  fireproof,  with  iron  roof,  and  roof  supports. 

The  walls  should  be  17  inches  thick,  and  the  overhead 
cross-beams  not  less  than  15  feet  above  the  floor,  with  the 
line  shafting  placed  in  pedestals,  resting  on  top  of  the 
beams. 

The  line  shafting  should  be  3  inches  diameter,  and  make 
250  revolutions  a  minute. 

A  mill  of  this  capacity  should  manufacture  at  least 
25,000  feet  of  matched  stuff  in  a  day,  besides  doing  an 
equal  amount  of  rough  surfacing. 

For  general  wood  manufacture  other  than  lumber  dress- 
ing or  car  building,  the  plain  rectangular  form  of  building 
represented  in  Fig.  1  is  as  nearly  correct  as  any  that  can 
be  devised.  The  material  and  the  machines  are  short,  and 
a  given  amount  of  floor  room,  with  convenient  ingress  and 
egress,  is  all  that  is  required. 

Upper  floors  are,  with  good  hoisting  apparatus,  nearly 
as  good  as  ground  floors  for  most  purposes,  and  the  most 
economical  buildings  for  furniture  manufacturing  are  from 
four  to  six  stories  high. 

To  secure  good  lighting,  cheap  timber  framing,  and  to 
avoid  posts,  wood-working  buildings  should  be  narrow  and 


8 


THE    OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


long;  or  rather  the  width  should  be  constant,  and  addi- 
tional room  secured  by  length. 

A  building  for  wood  manufacturing  can  be  48  feet  wide 
in  the  clear,  with  a  single  row  of  posts  in  the  middle,  if 
the  girders  are  deep  enough,  say  16  x  12  inches,  or  if 
smaller  they  may  be  trussed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

FIG.  3. 


The  truss  rods  are  generally  in  the  way  of  the  belts, 
especially  when  the  line  shafting  is  placed,  as  it  should  be, 
across  the  building;  and  in  nearly  all  cases  it  is  both 
better  and  cheaper  to  provide  strength  in  the  girders 
without  trussing  them. 

In  the  common  plan  of  resting  the  joist  on  the  top,  the 
girders  are  themselves  in  the  way  of  the  belts,  and  often 
cause  great  inconvenience. 

But  few  ever  consider  in  building  shops  that  this  method 
of  mounting  joists  adds  their  depth  to  the  height  of  the 
walls ;  so  that  it  is  not  only  an  inconvenient  but  a  very 
expensive  one.  A  building  with  three  floors  will  re- 
quire to  be  some  three  feet  higher  at  least,  to  give  the 
same  clearance  between  the  floors  as  when  the  joists  are 
let  in  flush. 

For  factories,  where  there  is  overhead  shafting,  the  joist 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


should  be  gained   into  the   girders,  and  rest   on  string 
pieces  also,  as  in  Fig.  4. 

FIG.  4. 


I 


REFERENCES. 

1.— Section  across  the  girder. 
2.— Joists. 
3.— Post. 
4. — Iron  post  cap,  wide  enough  to  receive  the  pieces  6,  6,  \vhich 

are  bolted  or  spiked  to  the  sides  of  the  girder  1,  to  receive 

part  of  the  strain  and  support  the  joists. 

With  bearing  strips  to  help  support  the  joists,  the  latter 
need  not  be  gained  into  the  girder  far  enough,  nor  deep 
enough,  to  weaken  it.  The  bottom  of  a  beam  is  its 
weakest  part,  in  resisting  transverse  strain  ;  and  the  gain, 
say  2J  inches  long  and  6  inches  deep  in  a  girder  16  x  12 
inches,  does  not  affect  its  strength.  The  top  receives  only 
compressive  strain,  and  is  after  notching  generally  stronger 
than  the  bottom  side. 

In  Fig.  4,  5  5  are  hanger-plates,  which  are  thick  enough 
to  come  flush  with  the  bottom  of  the  girders,  as  shown  by 
the  dotted  lines.  This  arrangement  of  having  the  girders 
project  below  the  joist  to  a  depth  equal  to  a  3  or  4  inch 
hanger-plate,  is  one  that  will  find  favour  with  any  mechanic 


10  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

who  has  had  experience  in  erecting  shafting  beneath  a  floor, 
where  the  joist  was  laid  on  the  top  of  the  girders,  and  where 
all  the  plans  for  belts,  and  even  the  position  of  machines, 
had  to  be  governed  by  the  position  of  the  girders.  As 
here  arranged,  the  whole  ceiling  is  in  effect  a  plane ;  a 
shaft  or  other  overhead  work  can  be  set  anywhere.  If  a 
hanger  comes  on  the  girders,  it  is  evident  that  no  hanger- 
plate  is  needed,  so  that  there  is  really  no  inconvenience, 
but  a  decided  advantage  in  having  the  girders  project 
below  the  joist,  to  the  difference  of  their  depth,  say  from 
3  to  4  inches. 

Joist  floors  are  the  best  floors  for  wood-manufacturing 
establishments  of  all  kinds.  A  'plank  floor,  resting  on  girder 
beams,  is  very  strong  in  the  sense  of  supporting  a  great  load, 
and  will  do  very  well  for  machine  shops,  but  is  totally  unfit 
to  resist  the  jar  and  vibration  of  high-speed  machines.  A 
floor  of  this  kind  is  elastic  and  springy,  no  matter  how 
thick  it  may  be,  while  a  joist  floor,  well  bridged,  is  stiff 
and  unyielding ;  although  it  might  be  broken  through  in 
spots  with  heavy  weights,  or  might  yield  more  in  supporting 
great  loads. 

To  put  the  same  planking  upon  joists,  that  is  usually 
laid  on  beams,  would  give  a  floor  that  is  stronger  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten.  But  the  custom  is  to  put  a  thin  floor, 
generally  a  single  one,  on  joists,  and  a  double  one  consisting 
of  heavy  plank  for  the  first  course  with  1^-inch  matched 
boards,  upon  beams.  Without  questioning  the  necessity 
of  the  double  floor  in  the  case  of  beams,  and  admitting  that 
a  joist  floor  is  strong  enough  without  it,  it  is  certainly  but 
fair  to  assume  a  floor  of  equal  strength  in  the  two  cases, 
when  making  comparisons  between  the  plans. 

A  double  floor  is  always  best,  a  jointed  one,  say  of 
IJ-inch  thick  lumber  laid  across  the  joist,  and  an  inch 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  11 

matched  floor  lengthwise  the  building,  making  2 J  inches  in 
all,  is  strong  enough  for  ordinary  upper  floors  that  have 
only  finishing  machines  to  support. 

Ground  floors  on  which  the  heavy  traffic  comes  cannot 
be  made  too  strong.  The  weight  of  heavy  machines 
requires  good  foundation  supports  to  keep  them  level  and 
to  prevent  vibration,  but  the  piling  of  lumber  which  is 
quite  as  heavy,  and  falls  first  in  one  place  and  then 
another,  is  the  main  thing  to  provide  against.  The  weight 
of  a  machine  is  constant  at  one  place,  and  when  it  is  once 
levelled  up  would  remain  so ;  but  if  two  to  five  thousand 
feet  of  hard  wood  lumber  is  piled  near  it,  unless  the  floor 
is  very  strong,  the  machine  is  listed  over  or  twisted  by 
depression  of  the  floor. 

When  there  is  no  basement  room,  and  nothing  to  hinder 
the  building  of  piers  beneath  a  floor,  there  is  no  excuse  for 
having  it  weak  enough  to  yield,  and  it  only  requires 
proper  consideration  at  the  time  of  erecting  the  building. 


STEAM  POWER  FOR  WOOD-WORKING  ESTABLISHMENTS. 

Among  other  subjects  which  a  foreman  or  wood-machine 
operator  is  expected  to  understand  is  that  of  steam  power. 
The  steam  power  is  an  integral  part  of  the  machinery  of  the 
establishment,  and  should  not  be  conducted  as  a  kind  of 
separate  department  from  the  rest.  If  it  is,  as  a  natural 
consequence  delays  and  derangements  will  be  of  frequent 
occurrence. 

To  keep  an  engine  always  running  requires  quick 
judgment  and  a  fertility  of  expedients  not  often  found 
with  the  class  of  engineers  it  is  common  to  employ  in 
wood-working  mills. 


12  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

In  the  United  States  the  foremen  and  operators  are,  as 
a  rule,  well  acquainted  with  steam  power,  and  it  often 
becomes  a  part  of  their  duty  to  give  suggestions  and  to 
make  plans  for  furnaces,  boilers,  engines,  and  other  details 
of  the  power  department  for  wood  shops. 

It  is  therefore  considered  here  quite  in  place  to  devote  a 
short  chapter  to  the  subject  directed  to  some  of  the  peculiar 
points  to  be  observed  in  making  plans  for  steam  power  in 
wood-manufacturing  establishments. 

A  wood-working  factory,  unlike  a  machine  shop,  has 
not  the  same  facilities  for  repairing,  and  keeping  fancy 
steam  engines  in  order.  The  dust  renders  it  almost  im- 
possible to  keep  them  clean  or  bright,  and  the  work  is  so 
irregular,  and  so  heavy,  that  the  expense  of  finishing  is 
much  better  expended  in  more  careful  fitting. 

The  duty  of  a  steam  engine  is  not  only  more  severe,  but  is 
more  irregular  than  in  almost  any  other  business.  As  a 
rule,  steam  engines  in  wood-working  establishments  will 
be  found  working  up  to  their  full  capacity,  and  require  the 
packing  and  joints  to  be  carefully  kept  in  order.  The  duty 
is  irregular  in  consequence  of  the  sudden  strain  of  starting 
planing  machines,  saws,  and  similar  machines*  The  average 
duty  is  regular  enough,  so  as  to  dispense  with  independent 
cut-off  valves  on  the  engine,  which  must  always  add  to  the 
complication,  and  liability  to  derangement  and  wear.  A 
strong  plain  engine  is  what  is  required,  without  bright  finish 
or  ornament,  but  with  well-fitted  joints  and  large  bearing 
surfaces  made  of  the  best  material. 

The  piston,  cross-head  connecting  rod,  and  main 
bearings,  are  the  vital  parts  to  be  looked  after.  The 
cross-head  bearings  are  continually  deprived  of  their  oil 
by  the  fine  dust  that  will  find  its  way  to  the  engine-room, 
no  matter  what  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  it ;  they 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  13 

should  have  either  fibrous  packing,  oil  feeders,  or  be  made 
of  wood.  Gibs  of  lignum  vitae  will  be  found  to  wear  well 
and  be  safe  from  danger  of  cutting  the  slides ;  besides, 
they  can  be  replaced  at  any  time  without  detention  for 
repairs,  or  a  trip  to  the  machine  shop. 

An  engine  to  drive  wood  machines  requires  a  heavy 
balance  uheel  to  ensure  steady  motion,  it  should  have  not 
less  than  500  pounds  of  weight  to  each  inch  of  diameter  of 
the  cylinder,  and  be  as  large  in  diameter  as  practicable. 

The  piston  speed  should  for  the  same  object  be  from 
300  feet  to  400  feet  a  minute. 

The  boiler  and  steam  furnace  are  matters  of  greater 
importance  than  the  engine.  They  generate  the  power, 
the  engine  merely  transmits  it  to  the  work,  a  thing  not 
always  thought  of. 

In  determining  what  variety  of  boiler  to  use,  there  are 
two  leading  conditions  to  be  taken  into  account — the  kind 
of  water,  and  the  kind  of  fuel  to  be  used. 

Wood  refuse  alone  is  not  a  severe  fuel,  but  when  mixed 
with  bituminous  coal  it  makes  a  very  hot  fire,  which  from 
its  intensity  and  its  irregularity  may  be  considered  destruc- 
tive to  &  boiler ;  to  obviate  this  the  boiler  must  be  kept 
clean  and  should  be  made  of  simple  form,  admitting  of 
easy  access  to  every  part. 

With  hard  lime  water,  which  is  commonly  found  through- 
out the  middle  States,  this  last-named  condition  becomes 
a  necessity ;  no  complicated  multiflued  or  fire-box  boiler 
can  last  long  when  there  is  much  lime  in  the  feed  water ; 
the  advantage 'gained  by  the  thinner  metal  in  the  tubes 
or  by  the  fire-box  is  soon  lost  through  incrustation,  while 
the  original  cost,  subsequent  repairs,  cost  of  cleaning, 
care,  management,  and  risk,  are  all  in  favour  of  the  plain 
cylinder  boiler  without  flues,  or  with  flues  that  can  be 


14  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

reached  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  both  internally  and 
externally. 

The  irregularity  of  firing  with  wood  fuel  when  a  regu- 
lating damper  is  not  used  makes  steam  room  desirable ; 
this  is  seldom  obtained  in  a  multinued  boiler,  where  the 
contracted  heating  surface  generally  leads  to  a  propor- 
tionately contracted  steam  space,  and  this,  with  the  ordi- 
nary mode  of  firing,  has  the  steam  "up"  and  "down" 
continually,  causing  a  derangement  of  the  work,  and  having 
a  most  destructive  effect  upon  the  boiler  itself  from  the 
intermittent  strain  upon  the  metal.  The  heating  surface 
and  steam  room,  or  in  other  words  the  capacity  of  a  boiler, 
should  be  one-third  more  for  a  wood  manufactory  where 
the  cuttings  and  shavings  are  burned,  than  where  coal  is 
exclusively  used  for  fuel. 

Although  in  opposition  to  a  popular  prejudice,  the 
writer  recommends  for  most  cases  a  plain  cylinder  boiler 
without  flues  of  any  kind,  carefully  set  in  a  first-class 
furnace,  and  made  long  enough  to  gain  the  full  effect  of 
the  fire.  There  is,  however,  not  much  use  in  recommend- 
ing a  thing  which  it  is  known  will  not  be  applied.  There 
is  a  prejudice  against  cylinder  boilers  throughout  most 
parts  of  the  United  States  that  prevents  their  use  in  a 
great  many  cases  where  they  would  give  nearly  as  good  a 
result  as  those  with  flues,  and  have  other  advantages 
which  all  must  admit. 

Following  the  general  practice  of  the  middle  and  western 
States  we  present  some  views  respecting  the  construction 
of  furnaces  for  double-flued  cylinder  boilers. 

The  plans  set  forth  in  the  Figures  which  follow,  have 
for  general  objects,  a  tight  furnace,  a  cool  place  to  fire,  and 
a  saving  in  first  cost,  with  greater  safety  from  fire.  Such 
a  furnace  as  is  here  represented  requires  better  mason- work 
than  ordinary  furnaces,  and  should  have  a  thorough 


THE    OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


15 


lining  of  fire-brick  about  the  fire-bed.  The  whole  amount 
of  brickwork  is  greater  than  when  an  iron  fire-front 
is  used.  As  a  modification  of  steam  fur-  FIG.  5. 

naces  it  may  be  considered  adapted  to  wood- 
manufacturing  establishments,  because  of 
its  safety  from  fire  and  the  avoidance  of 
heat  by  the  fireman ;  the  latter,  considering 
the  attention  and  time  that  is  needed  to  fire 
with  shavings,  is  no  small  object. 

Fig.  5  shows  a  longitudinal  section 
through  a  furnace  built  with  its  end  oppo- 
site to,  and  combined  with,  the  stack,  so  that 
no  breeching  is  needed,  and  the  firing  is 
effected  from  the  side,  as  seen  in  the  side 
elevation,  Fig.  6,  without  exposure  to  the 
heat,  and  with  more  safety  from  danger  of 
fire.  The  ash-pit  opens  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  furnace  generally,  outside  the  build- 
ing, where  there  is  no  danger  of  the  shavings 
catching  fire  while  feeding  the  furnace  or 
when  the  attendant  is  absent.  A  slide 
damper  and  the  lever  to  work  it  are  shown 
on  the  front  of  the  stack,  Fig.  6. 

A  cross-section  through  the  furnace  at 


the  bridge  wall  is  shown  at  Fig.  7,  with  the  covering 
over  the  boiler  to  retain  the  heat  and  to  guard  against 
danger  from  sparks.  The  filling,  or  covering,  is  of  sand, 


16 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


Boiler,  44  inches  diameter,  28  feet  long. 

Two  flues,  16  inches  diameter. 

Height  of  steam  chimney,  60  to  75  feet. 

Area  of  flue  in  the  chimney,  500  inches. 

Area  of  boiler  flues,  400  inches. 

Area  of  throat  at  the  bridge  wall,  400  to  450  inches. 

Area  of  grate  surface,  16  square  feet. 

Area  of  the  flue  behind  the  bridge  wall,  7  to  10  feet. 

Clearance  on  the  sides  of  the  boiler,  4|  inches. 

Clearance  at  back  end  of  the  boiler,  14  inches. 

Size  of  fire-door,  15  x  30  inches. 

Depth  of  ash-pit,  24  inches. 

Width  of  ash-pit,  42  inches. 

Ash-door  (air  inlet),  700  to  800  inches. 

Thickness  of  furnace  wall?,  single,  13  inches. 

Thickness  of  furnace  walls,  if  double,  17  inches. 

Depth  from  boiler  to  grate,  18  to  22  inches. 

Clearance  between  boiler  and  chimney,  24  inches. 

The  fire-room  floor  to  be  level  with  the  grates. 


n — r 


FIG.  6. 


earth,  or  ashes,  instead  of  mortar  aiid  brick,  which  is  liable 
to  crack,  and  allow  sparks  to  escape,  when  the  damper 
is  shut,  which  is  one  of  the  most  common 
sources  of  fire  about  wood  factories  where 
steam  power  is  employed. 

The  following  dimensions  are  for  a  furnace 
of  this  kind,  arranged  for  about  40-horse 
power,  and  sufficient  to  drive  a  mill  such  as 
shown  in  Fig.  7. 


'          I — I L 


A  covering  of  loose  earth  or  sand,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7, 
has  other  advantages  besides  the  safety  which  it  ensures 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  17 

from  fire ;  it  is  cheap,  easy  to  remove  and  renew,  and  a 
good  non-conductor  of  heat.    With  a  tight  furnace  covered 
in  this  manner,  it  is  comparatively  safe 
to  erect  drying  rooms  over  a  boiler,  if 
the  wood  is  kept  at  some  distance  above 
the  furnace — say,  5  feet,  or  more. 

The  usual  method  of  firing  with  wood 
shavings  is  wrong ;  there  are  seldom  any 
means  employed  to  regulate  the  fire  or 
the  quantity  of  steam  generated,  except 
by  the  amount  of  fuel  that  is  fed  to 
the  furnace ;  a  custom  not  only  wrong,  because  of  the 
waste  of  fuel  it  occasions,  but  because  of  the  irregularity 
it  causes  in  the  pressure  of  the  steam  and  the  increased 
amount  of  labour  required  for  firing.  Without  some  means 
of  controlling  the  fire  there  is,  at  intervals,  an  intense  heat 
which  generates  more  steam  than  is  needed;  the  fuel  is 
soon  burnt  out,  and  the  cold  air  allowed  to  pass  through 
the  bare  grates,  until  the  heating  effect  of  the  fire  is  in 
part  counteracted.  When  fresh  fuel  is  added  it  at  once 
burns  up,  or,  as  is  often  the  case  with  a  strong  draught, 
nearly  all  the  lighter  shavings  are  drawn  over  the 
bridge  wall  before  they  are  burned.  An  experiment  for 
a  single  day  in  the  use  of  a  regulating  damper  will  be 
sufficient  to  convince  anyone  of  its  advantages.  The 
furnace  should  be  kept  full  of  fuel,  no  matter  what  its 
character,  and  the  steam  regulated  by  the  draught,  either 
with  a  slide  damper  operated  by  the  fireman,  or  what  is 
much  better,  with  a  steam  damper  that  regulates  the 
draught  without  any  attention. 

There  are  perhaps  no  simple  contrivances  that  save 
so  much  labour  and  money,  so  uniformly  perform  their 
functions  satisfactorily,  are  so  much  neglected  and  so 


IU 


18  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

little  known,  as  steam-damper  regulators.  No  one  who 
uses  them  would  think  of  doing  without  them,  and  but 
few  who  do  not  have  them  ever  think  of  their  importance. 

There  is  no  case  where  steam  dampers  are  not  needed, 
but  nowhere  else  are  they  so  important  as  to  regulate  the 
fire  in  the  steam  furnaces  of  wood-working  establishments, 
where  the  fuel  is  of  a  mixed  and  inflammable  character 
and  cannot  be  fed  with  sufficient  regularity  to  keep  the 
steam  at  a  uniform  pressure.  The  original  patent  on  these 
damper  regulators  has  expired,  and  they  are  now  sold  at  a 
low  price  by  various  makers. 

In  arranging  steam  plant  for  wood  manufactories  pro- 
vision should  be  made  to  guard  against  freezing  in  the 
winter.  Carrying  out  and  bringing  in  such  bulky  material 
as  lumber  always  makes  a  shop  cold,  especially  in  the 
lower  story  where  the  steam  power  is  placed,  and  nothing 
is  more  annoying  than  to  be  froze  up.  A  little  over- 
sight in  this  way  often  leads  to  expensive  delay,  when  a 
few  dollars  would  have  saved  all  if  it  had  been  considered 
in  time. 

Another  very  important  matter  in  the  arrangement  of 
steam  furnaces  about  wood  mills  is  to  have  them  con- 
venient to  fire.  We  may  provide  against  heat  by  neither 
using  a  smoke  breeching  nor  an  iron  fire  front,  but  if  the 
fireman  has  to  stand  and  shovel  in  shavings  through  a 
small  door  breast  high,  only  half  has  been  done  that  can 
be  accomplished  to  render  the  firing  easy.  The  fire-doors 
should  be  level  with  the  fire-room  floor,  so  that  the 
shavings  and  sawdust  may  be  shoved  into  the  furnace 
with  a  large  scraper ;  the  doorway  should  be  not  less  than 
30  inches  wide,  the  doors  well  lined  to  keep  them  cool, 
and  the  whole  floor  in  front  of  the  furnace  made  of  iron 
plates,  so  that  the  fuel  may  lie  about  the  door  without 


19 


THE    OPERATORS   HANDBOOK.  a 

danger  of  catching  fire,  and  avoid  the  trouble  of  con- 
tinually sweeping  up,  which  would  otherwise  be  neces- 
sary. There  is  not  the  least  objection  to  arranging  a 
furnace  in  this  manner,  in  fact  there  is  a  decided  gain 
in  convenience  of  access  to  every  part,  except  to  the 
ash-pit,  which  is  but  a  small  matter. 


SHAFTING  FOB  WOOD  SHOPS. 

If  any  machine  operator  of  long  experience,  or,  for  that 
matter,  of  short  experience,  were  asked  what  occasioned 
the  greater  number  of  accidents  about  wood  shops  and 
what  caused  most  delays,  he  would  be  sure  to  reply, 
"  The  line  shafting." 

For  a  shaft  to  break  by  crystallization  from  bending — 
to  be  torn  loose  by  winding  belts  —  to  have  pulleys  or 
couplings  come  loose,  is  a  common  cause  of  detention  and 
expense.  The  couplings  are  mentioned  last,  although  if 
ranked  as  to  the  amount  of  detention  and  trouble  they 
cause,  they  should  have  been  named  first ;  but  whether  it 
be  coupling,  pulleys,  hangers,  or  shafting,  the  trouble  is 
generally  with  the  main  line. 

If  we  go  to  a  machinist  who  manufactures  shafting, 
and  inquire  whether  there  is  any  special  difficulty  in  the 
way  of  making  it  safe  from  derangement  or  accident,  he 
will  answer,  "  Certainly  not." 

Granting  this,  we  have  either  a  paradox,  or  very  bad 
practice,  and  as  a  paradox  is  rare  in  mechanics,  the  latter 
is  the  safer  conclusion. 

Shafts  for  transmitting  motion  and  power  are  the  oldest 
of  mechanical  appliances,  and  should,  as  we  would  suppose, 
for  this  reason,  be  among  the  most  perfect,  but  this  is  a 

c  2 


20 

claim  to  which  they  can  by  no  means  pretend;  and  the 
great  diversity  of  the  plans  for  couplings,  hangers,  and 
bearings  by  different  makers  attests  the  fact  that  the 
manufacture  of  shafting  is  by  no  means  a  perfected  art. 

There  are  but  few  places  where  line  shafting  is  so  severely 
used  as  in  wood  shops;  the  usually  small  diameter,  with 
the  high  speed,  the  wide  belts,  and  the  heavy  duty  that 
it  generally  has  to  perform,  are  all  conditions  that  are 
more  or  less  avoided  in  other  manufacturing  establish- 
ments. 

Machines  when  suddenly  started  offer  a  resistance  in 
proportion  to  the  power  employed  in  driving  them,  and 
measured  by  this  rule  there  are  but  few  machines  in 
common  use  so  heavy  to  start  and  causing  so  great  a 
strain  upon  the  shafting,  as  planing  machines  and  circular 
saws.  There  are  of  course  many  that  require  as  much 
power,  but  to  include  all  conditions,  such  as  the  speed  of 
the  belts  and  the  usual  means  of  shifting  them,  with  the 
sudden  stopping  which  often  occurs,  there  is  hardly  a 
parallel  among  manufacturing  machinery.  A  planing 
machine  or  saw  that  consumes  eight  to  ten  horse  power 
to  drive  it  will  have  the  belts  shifted  instantly  from  the 
loose  to  the  tight  pulley,  and  the  only  reason  the  shafting 
does  not  give  way  is  that  such  machines  are  generally 
but  weakly  belted,  and  the  belts  slip  until  the  machine 
gets  into  motion.  The  same  thing  in  effect  occurs  in  over- 
feeding saws,  so  that  the  shafting  is  continually  subjected 
to  a  succession  of  torsional  strains,  that  will  soon  search 
out  the  bad  jobs  in  fitting  couplings  and  pulleys. 

In  preparing  plans  for  a  wood-working  mill,  the  shafting 
should,  for  reasons  already  given,  go  across  the  building 
whenever  practicable.  By  belting  from  one  line  to  the 
other  at  one  side  of  the  room  the  whole  power  is  not  trans- 


THE    OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


21 


mitted  through  the  couplings,  as  in  the  case  of  one  con- 
tinuous shaft  to  drive  all  the  machinery.  The  work  is 
also  divided  more  evenly  throughout  the  several  lines,  and 
this  does  away  with  the  supposed  necessity  of  having  the 
line  shafting  in  sections  of  various  diameters,  which  pre- 
vents the  interchange  of  pulleys  from  one  shaft  to  another, 
and  often  leads  to  expense  and  trouble. 

The  first  section  of  shafting  carrying  the  main  driving 
pulley  should  have  a  diameter  equal  to  one-fifth  the  width 
of  the  main  driving  belt,  and  be  supported  at  each  side 
of  the  main  pulley ;  to  make  a  rule,  this  section  should 
not  be  more  than  twenty  diameters  long  between  bearings. 

Fig.  8  shows  a  good  arrangement  of  line  shafting  for 
a  mill  about  50  feet  by  150  feet,  with  three  cross  lines  of 
shafting. 

FIG.  8. 


I                                           { 
1                                            I 

i                                i 
i 
i 

4                                          ^ 

1 

1 

] 

* 

i                                              1 

I 

£nj 

r    -             1 

|j                                      7E| 

pII^.-"_ 

EEFEKENCES. 

1. — The  main  driving  pulley. 
2. — Belt  to  the  engine. 
3  and  4. — Second  driving  pulleys. 
5  and  6. — Third  driving  pulleys. 


Having  the  first  or  driving  sections  6  feet  long,  and  four 
additional  sections  in  each  line  10  feet  long,  is  a  good 
arrangement  for  a  mill  of  the  dimensions  given. 

The  advantages  gained  by  this  plan  over  that  of  having 


22  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

a  continuous  line  or  a  single  line  running  the  other  way 
of  the  building  are  :• — 

First. — Only  a  part  of  the  power  is  transmitted  through 
the  couplings. 

Second. — The  speed  of  the  different  lines  can  be  varied 
and  to  some  extent  accommodate  machines  of  different 
classes,  which  can  be  arranged  with  this  view. 

Third.  —  A  part  of  the  shafting  can  be  stopped  for 
repairs,  or  to  put  on  belts  or  pulleys  without  stopping  the 
whole ;  in  other  words,  about  two-thirds  of  the  works  may 
be  kept  going  in  such  cases. 

Fourth. — With  this  arrangement  the  shafting  can  be  of 
a  uniform  diameter  throughout,  except  the  first  or  driving 
sections. 

Fifth. — The  machines  stand  lengthwise  the  building, 
and  the  course  of  the  stuff  is  in  this  direction,  as  it  should 
be,  and  as  it  must  be,  for  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find 
planing  and  other  machines  driven  with  quarter  turn 
belting  to  accomplish  this,  when  the  shafting  is  placed  the 
other  way. 

For  wood  shops,  2J-inch  and  3-inch  shafting  are  the  best 
sizes;  2^-inch  shafts  are  as  small  as  any  should  be,  and 
they  should  not,  without  some  important  reason,  exceed  3 
inches  in  diameter. 

A  line  of  2J-inch  shafting  will  run  safely  and  well  at 
250  revolutions  a  minute,  or  a  3-inch  line  will  run  200 
revolutions  a  minute,  if  the  bearings  are  properly  made 
and  it  is  kept  in  line. 

Pulleys  should  be  turned  true  and  balanced — balanced 
perfectly,  no  matter  what  their  speed. 

The  effect  of  an  unbalanced  pulley  is  as  its  speed,  but 
it  is  never  known  where  pulleys  may  have  to  be  used  in 
changing,  and  the  only  safe  rule  is  to  have  every  pulley 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  23 

carefully  balanced,  no  matter  what  the  speed  may  be  at 
which  they  run. 

Pulleys  should  be  as  light  as  possible,  both  as  a  matter 
of  economy  and  convenience.  Our  best  makers  are,  how- 
ever, making  them  light  enough,  so  that  a  specification 
as  to  weight  need  hardly  be  given  with  an  order  for  pulleys. 

As  to  couplings,  they  should  be  adjustable  or  com- 
pressive,  not  keyed  on,  or  wedged  on,  for  only  such  a  key 
should  be  used  as  will  not  keep  a  solid  coupling  on. 
Adjustable  couplings  are  now  very  generally  used  for  line 
shafting  in  America,  and  certainly  there  is  no  place  where 
they  are  more  needed  than  in  our  wood  shops,  where  there 
is  such  a  continual  changing  and  adding  of  machines  and 
pulleys,  that  the  shaft  has  constantly  to  be  disconnected 
for  the  purpose. 

Hangers  to  support  the  line  shafting  in  wood  shops 
should  always  have  their  bearings  pivoted,  and  adjustable 
vertically.  The  heavy  loads  of  lumber  that  are  piled  on 
upper  floors  depress  them  between  the  posts,  and  a  line 
shaft  requires  to  be  often  levelled  up.  If  the  bearings 
have  a  vertical  adjustment  in  the  hanger  frames,  and  are 
moved  by  screws,  as  they  should  be,  it  is  a  small  matter  to 
take  a  ladder,  a  level,  and  a  wrench,  and  go  along  the 
line  to  level  it.  A  hundred  feet  of  shafting  may  be 
adjusted  in  this  manner  in  an  hour,  if  the  larger  belts 
are  thrown  off  to  relieve  it  from  strain,  and  the  shafting 
is  straight  and  true.  The  operation  is  so  simple  and  so 
generally  understood  that  it  need  not  be  explained  here. 

Shafting  is  not  liable  to  get  out  of  line  horizontally, 
unless  from  the  strain  of  belts  ;  it  is,  however,  well  to  line 
up  as  often  as  twice  a  year,  to  be  sure  that  all  is  right.  It 
has  been  in  times  past  a  common  thing  to  allow  shafting 
to  run  as  long  as  it  would  go,  without  adjusting,  and 


24 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


then  stop  the  works  for  a  day  or  two  to  line  up ;  which 
is  unnecessary  and  only  a  loss  of  time.  A  shaft  may  be 
levelled  by  almost  anyone  when  the  hangers  are  properly 
made,  and  can  be  done  at  noon,  or  after  stopping  in  the 
evening,  without  interfering  with  the  business  at  all. 


FIG.  9. 


KEFERENCES. 

D. — The  ceiling,  to  which  the  hangers  are  bolted. 
a  a  a. — The  line  shaft. 

c  c  c. — Plumb-lines  resting  against  the  shaft,  near  to  the  bearings. 
dd. — A  horizontal  line  stretched  below  the  shaft. 


FIG.  10. 


To  line  a  shaft  horizontally  is 
but  little  more  trouble  if  the  bear- 
ings or  hangers  can  be  moved  in 
that  direction. 

Suspended  hangers  should  have 
the  bolt-holes  slotted  for  an  inch 
or  more  of  movement,  and  post 
hangers  should  have  movable  bear- 
ings that  permit  side  adjustment. 

Assuming  that  there  is  some 
means  of  moving  the  shaft  hori- 
zontally, a  good  plan  of  adjusting  it  is  by  suspending  a 
number  of  plumb-lines  that  will  bear  against  one  side  of 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  25 

the  shaft,  and  reach  down  low  enough  to  be  sighted  from 
the  floor,  as  shown  in  Figs.  9,  10 ;  or  for  greater  accuracy 
a  strong  line  may  be  stretched  about  5  feet  from  the  floor, 
as  at  d  d,  to  gauge  the  plumb-lines  from. 

This  lower  line  can  at  the  beginning  be  set  within  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  of  the  two  plumb-lines  at  the  ends, 
and  the  rest  can  then  be  adjusted  to  the  same  position  by 
moving  the  bearings ;  or  the  end  bearings  can  be  also 
adjusted,  as  the  case  may  require. 

A  ball  of  strong  packing  thread,  and  half-a-dozen  or 
more  old  screw  nuts  for  the  plumb-lines,  make  the  outfit, 
and  the  job  can  be  well  executed,  at  but  little  expense 
and  time,  if  the  hangers  are  properly  made,  and  erected 
so  as  to  be  adjusted  without  trouble. 

This  kind  of  work  must  be  to  a  great  extent  a  matter 
of  judgment;  anyone  who  depends  upon  special  know- 
ledge, or  what  he  may  have  seen  done  and  been  instructed 
in,  will  not  be  so  successful  in  millwrighting  as  he  would 
be  if  he  proceeds  boldly,  using  his  own  judgment  as  to 
plans,  and  reasoning  thoroughly  about  the  work  before 
beginning  it. 

There  are  many  ways  of  adjusting  line  shafting ;  some 
of  them  tedious  and  expensive,  and  some  useless.  The 
one  suggested  is  the  most  simple  that  can  be  given,  and 
is  accurate  enough  for  all  practical  purposes. 


ERECTING  COUNTERSHAFTING. 

If  a  machine  operator  or  even  a  regular  millwright 
were  to  be  set'  at  a  job  to  test  his  judgment  and  abilities, 
there  is  perhaps  no  other  that  could  be  selected  better 
than  erecting  a  countershaft. 


26  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

The  ways  of  erecting,  all  of  which  may  in  the  end 
produce  the  same  result,  are  so  various  as  to  render  it 
difficult  to  give  rules  that  will  be  generally  approved  of. 
The  advantages  of  the  different  plans  can  only  be  tested 
by  the  time  required  to  do  the  work,  assuming,  of  course, 
that  it  is  to  be  properly  done  in  all  cases.  It  may  require 
two,  and  often  requires  three,  men  a  whole  day  to  put  up 
a  countershaft ;  which  in  another  case  will  be  put  up  in 
two  hours  by  one  man,  assisted  only  in  holding  and 
lifting. 

In  erecting  a  countershaft,  what  have  first  to  be  deter- 
mined are  the  position  of  the  machine  it  is  to  drive,  and 
whether  the  belting  is  clear.  When  a  line  shaft  is  crowded 
with  pulleys,  it  often  requires  great  care  to  place  the 
countershafts  so  that  belts  will  not  interfere  with  each 
other  ;  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  a  shaft  to  be  put  up, 
and  then  the  discovery  made  that  belts  interfere  with 
others  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  line  shaft. 

Be  careful  in  starting,  that  is  the  great  point,  not  only 
in  putting  up  shafts,  but  in  all  other  mechanical  opera- 
tions that  involve  calculations  and  accurate  measurements. 

For  example,  let  us  suppose  that  a  countershaft  is  to  be 
erected,  and  go  through  the  various  operations,  one  at  a 
time.  Beginning  with  the  hanger-plates,  these  should  be 
of  hard  wood,  long  enough  to  reach  from  two  to  four 
joists,  as  the  weight  of  the  shaft  and  belting  may  re- 
quire ;  their  width  should  be  from  one  and  one-half  to 
twice  the  width  of  the  hanger  base,  and  their  thickness,  as 
an  approximate  rule,  one-fifth  the  drop  of  the  hanger. 
When  the  joists  are  of  hemlock,  or  harder  wood,  and 
three  inches  or  more  thick,  almost  any  kind  of  shafting 
can  be  hung  with  safety  on  wood  screws,  or  lag  screws,  as 
they  are  sometimes  called,  passing  through  the  hanger- 


THE    OPERATORS   HANDBOOK.  27 

plate,  and  screwed  directly  into  the  joist.  These  screws 
should  be  of  good  size,  not  less  than  |  inch  diameter  in 
any  case,  and  long  enough  to  pass  into  the  joist  a  distance 
at  least  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  hanger-plate.  A 
plate  three  inches  thick  requires,  with  cast-iron  washers, 
screws  that  are  seven  inches  long;  if  one  in  each  joist, 
|  inch  diameter,  if  two  in  each  joist,  f  inch  or  f  inch  will 
do  for  ordinary  countershafts. 

Having  the  hanger-plates  ready,  next  mount  the  shaft 
in  the  hangers  and  invert  them,  to  stand  on  a  level  floor, 
Fig.  11,  and  after  settling  the  shaft  to  see  that  the 
bearings  are  not  cramped,  and  that  the  hangers  stand 
fair  on  their  base,  measure  between  the  bolt  holes  accu- 
rately, or  what  is  better,  cut  a  short  strip  of  wood  to  the 
length  between  the  centres,  marked  e  in  the  Figure. 

FIG.  11. 


Floor. 

If  the  shaft  is  to  be  placed  to  suit  some  pulley  on  the 
line  shaft,  measure  from  the  centre  of  the  hanger  next 
the  loose  pulley  the  distance  to  the  centre  between  the 
tight  and  loose  pulleys ;  this  should  also  be  marked  on 
the  stick,  as  the  base  for  the  position  of  the  shaft,  we 
will  term  it  the  driving  belt  line,  it  is  the  distance 
marked  a,  Fig.  11. 

This  belt  line  most  then  be  determined  and  scribed  on 


28 


THE    OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


the  joist ;  it  is  easily  found  from  a  pulley,  or  by  measuring 
from  a  wall  or  girder  that  crosses  the  line  shaft  at  right 
angles. 

Placing  the  measuring  stick  with  this  base  mark,  the 
centre  between  the  pulleys,  upon  the  belt  line,  next  set 
out  at  each  end  for  the  wood  screws  or  bolts  that  are  to 
hold  the  hanger-plates,  bore  the  hanger-plates  and  screw 
them  up  at  one  end,  but  not  hard  against  the  joist,  leave  a 
half-inch  or  more  for  packing,  when  levelling  up ;  then 
set  the  plates  at  right  angles  across  the  joist,  and  mark 
the  position  of  the  joists  so  as  to  bore  through  the  plates 
for  the  other  screws,  which  can  be  done  by  swinging  the 
plates  around,  and  without  taking  them  down.  Again 
set  the  plates  across  the  joist  as  accurately  as  possible  by 

FIG.  12. 


means  of  a  carpenter's  square,  and  mark  the  holes  on  the 
joist  for  the  remaining  wood  screws.  In  screwing  up  the 
plates  they  can  be  brought  level  by  furrowing  down  on 
their  top,  with  pieces  of  wood  split  in  two  or  notched  to 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  29 

accommodate  the  wood  screws,  placed  between  the  plates 
and  the  joist.  To  mount  the  hangers,  if  they  have  pivot 
bearings,  as  all  ought  to  have,  bore  through  the  hanger- 
plate  for  one  bolt  by  measurement;  no  great  accuracy 
is  needed  in  this,  unless  the  shaft  has  to  come  laterally  to 
a  particular  line,  which  is  seldom  the  case.  Screw  up 
one  hanger  with  a  through  bolt,  then  remove  the  pulleys 
from  the  shaft,  put  it  in  the  hangers,  then  prop  the  loose 
one,  or  both,  if  needed,  with  a  brace  resting  on  the  floor 
or  a  stage,  as  shown  at  Fig.  12.  For  the  next  operation, 
procure  a  pole  or  strip  of  wood  c,  Fig.  13,  long  enough  to 


FIG.  13. 
d 


reach  from  the  countershaft  to  the  line  shaft,  cut  a  notch 
in  the  end,  or  drive  a  strong  spike  in  the  side,  and  let 
it  rest  on  the  line  shaft,  at  a,  and  extend  to  the  counter- 
shaft at  d.  By  moving  alternately  from  one  end  of  the 
countershaft  to  the  other,  and  driving  the  loose  hanger  to 
adjust  it,  a  parallel  is  obtained,  much  truer  than  by  lines 
and  measurement,  and  in  a  tenth  part  of  the  time.  The 
pole  can  be  marked  at  the  centres  of  the  countershaft 
at  each  trial  until  the  ends  correspond.  Then  bore  the 
three  remaining  holes  for  the  hanger-bolts,  put  the  pul- 
leys on  the  shaft,  and  mount  the  whole  in  place.  Level 
the  shaft  by  using  a  plumb  line  alongside  the  pulleys, 
which,  if  they  are  at  all  true,  will  be  found  a  more  accurate 
plan  than  to  use  a  spirit  level  on  the  shaft  itself.  The 
job  is  now  finished,  and  there  is  a  question  as  to  which 
is  the  greater  labour,  to  erect  a  shaft  or  to  describe  the 
operation.  With  a  good  pair  of  trestles  at  hand,  and 
wood  screws  and  hanger-plates  ready,  an  ordinary  counter- 


30  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

shaft  for  belts  from  three  to  six  inches  wide  should  be  put 
up  in  from  one  and  one-half  to  three  hours'  time,  by  one 
man  and  an  assistant.  The  time  of  erecting,  and  the 
accuracy  with  which  a  shaft  can  be  set,  as  well  as  the 
facility  with  which  it  can  be  kept  in  line,  depend  greatly 
upon  how  the  hangers  are  made.  All  bearings  in  wood- 
working establishments  should  be  pivoted ;  the  depression 
of  floors,  which  must  take  place  from  piling  stuff,  is 
continually  altering  the  bearings  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  and  if  they  are  rigid,  the  bearing  is  spoiled  by 
the  least  change.  Such  nicety  is  not  required  at  low 
speeds,  but  when  shafts  carrying  heavy  strained  belts  have 
a  speed  of  750  or  more  revolutions  a  minute,  every  pre- 
caution must  be  observed  to  have  them  run  without 
heating.  If  the  bearings  are  pivoted,  and  arranged  to  be 
adjusted  vertically  on  the  hanger,  it  is  but  little  trouble  to 
keep  shafts  level.  The  bolt  holes  in  the  hanger-plate  if 
slotted  to  allow  for  horizontal  adjustment,  will  answer  for 
pendent  hangers  without  having  the  bearings  movable  in 
the  brackets. 

The  transverse  strength  of  the  brackets  should  be  suffi- 
cient to  break  the  belting,  if  not,  there  is  always  danger 
of  the  whole  being  torn  down  by  the  winding  of  belts ;  and 
as  the  belts  are  generally  twice  as  strong  as  those  used  in 
other  shops,  the  hangers  should  be  the  same. 


SETTING  MACHINES. 


Setting  machines  belongs  to  the  same  class  of  work  as 
erecting  shafting,  and  is  much  the  same  thing — a  matter 
of  judgment,  rather  than  one  of  acquired  skill. 

The  only  general  rule  that  can  be  given,  is  to  set  them 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  31 

level,  with  their  shafts  and  spindles  parallel  to  the  line 
shaft.  There  are,  however,  many  plans  of  doing  this,  and 
a  word  on  the  subject  will  not  be  amiss. 

When  a  new  shop  is  built,  and  the  line  shaft  erected, 
or  when  its  position  is  determined,  and  before  it  is 
erected,  each  floor  of  the  building  should  be  scribed  with 
what  we  will  term  a  machine  line,  that  is,  a  base  from 
which  the  engine,  the  line  shaft,  countershafts,  and 
machines  may  be  set,  independent  of  each  other,  and  yet 
with  accuracy.  To  do  this,  take  the  centre  line  through 
the  building  both  ways,  and  scribe  it  on  the  floors,  not  with 
a  scribe  awl  alone,  but  with  a  wagon  maker's  scribing 
hook,  that  will  cut  a  deep  groove.  After  striking  with 
a  chalk  line,  tack  down  a  straight  edge,  and  score  the 
lines  with  the  scribing  hook,  so  that  they  will  remain 
as  long  as  the  floor  lasts,  or  at  least  as  long  as  machines 
are  to  be  added.  Plumb  up  or  down,  as  the  case  may  be, 
and  scribe  each  floor  in  this  way ;  whether  machines  are 
to  be  set  on  floors  or  not,  there  will  sure  to  be  some  use 
for  these  base  lines.  If  there  are  ground  floors,  scribe 
the  lines  on  the  walls,  drive  stakes,  or  put  them  on  the 
ceiling ;  have  them  somewhere,  in  each  story,  and  in  each 
room.  When  these  lines  are  once  made,  the  setting  of 
machines  becomes  a  simple  matter,  for  lines  parallel  to, 
or  at  right  angles  to,  them  are  easy  to  lay  out ;  and  shafts 
or  spindles  can  be  set  true  by  measurement  as  in  Fig.  13, 
if  they  are  first  levelled. 

The  common  practice  when  a  shaft  or  machine  is  to  be 
erected  is  to  square  it  from  something  which  has  pre- 
viously been  set  by  something  else,  on  the  principle  of 
measuring  by  succession,  a  practice  no  mechanic  would 
think  of  in  other  cases. 

If  machines  have  iron  frames  and  stand  on  masonry, 


32  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

they  can  be  fixed  by  running  melted  lead  or  brimstone 
under  the  feet  after  setting  and  levelling  them.  On  earth 
floors,  however,  it  is  not  necessary  to  build  masonry  for 
any  except  reciprocating  machines.  Stakes  of  locust, 
cedar,  or  mulberry  wood,  set  in  the  earth  from  three 
feet  to  four  feet  deep,  and  then  sawn  off  level  on  top, 
make  almost  as  good  a  foundation  for  any  machine  as 
masonry.  It  is,  however,  exceptional  to  find  machines 
set  on  the  ground,  a  plan  that  has  nothing  to  recom- 
mend it,  for  when  attempted  there  has  to  be  a  floor  over 
a  great  part  of  the  room,  that  usually  costs  as  much  as  a 
complete  floor  would,  if  it  had  been  laid  down  at  the 
beginning. 


BELTING  FOR  WOOD  MACHINERY. 

Kules  that  apply  to  belts  in  general  are  applicable 
to  those  used  in  wood-working  establishments,  yet  there 
are  some  conditions  to  be  taken  into  account  that  are 
peculiar  and  exceptional.  The  belting  is  dry  in  all  cases, 
and  often  has  shavings  or  sawdust  passing  under  the  sur- 
faces, preventing  contact  on  the  pulleys,  and  so  reducing 
the  tractile  power.  Besides,  the  belting  moves  at  such 
high  speeds  that  it  prevents  contact  on  the  pulleys,  espe- 
cially when  of  small  diameter. 

For  these  reasons,  the  belting  should  be  much  wider 
than  would  be  needed  to  transmit  an  equal  amount  of 
power  in  other  establishments. 

Belts  to  drive  wood  machines  require  to  be  at  least  one- 
third  wider  than  for  metal  -  cutting  or  other  machines 
where  the  belts  can  be  kept  soft  or  moist.  Even  twice 
the  width  will  not  be  too  much  in  some  cases. 

For  main  belts,  india-rubbre  is   preferable  to  leather. 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  33 

It  has  advantages  in  driving  capacity,  in  running  true, 
and,  if  well  made,  it  is  more  durable ;  its  merits  are,  as 
a  rule,  not  understood,  although  it  has  been  in  use  for 
the  last  twenty  years.  The  ordinary  gum  belting  of  com- 
merce may  not  be  as  durable  as  leather ;  both  the  webbing 
and  the  gum  may  be  of  poor  quality  ;  but  if  an  order  is 
sent  to  a  first-class  house  for  a  good  gum  belt,  heavy  enough 
for  its  work,  there  is  no  leather  belt  that  will  equal  it.  The 
tractile  power  in  a  wood  shop,  where  the  surfaces  must  run 
dry,  is  at  least  one-third  greater  than  that  of  leather  belts, 
and  the  tension  can  be  proportionately  less,  or  the  belt  so 
much  narrower  to  do  the  same  work.  The  best  plan,  how- 
ever, is  to  keep  the  width  and  avoid  tension,  which,  if  too 
great,  is  apt  to  break  the  belt  joints  and  heat  the  bear- 
ings of  the  shafts. 

For  joining  gum  belting  there  is  no  better  plan  than 
with  malleable  iron  hooks.  Clamps,  with  plates  on  the 
back,  and  other  contrivances  of  a  similar  kind,  make  the 
joint  too  rigid,  and  also  make  a  disagreeable  noise  in 
passing  over  metal  pulleys.  Cement  joints  that  are  gene- 
rally recommended  by  the  manufacturers  of  this  belting 
cannot  well  be  made  by  those  unskilled  in  the  matter,  and 
are  not  necessary  except  for  heavy  driving  belts. 

What  is  wanted  is  a  smooth  joint,  quickly  and  cheaply 
made,  and  one  that  will  not  pull  out ;  such  a  joint  can  be 
made  with  hooks.  A  belt,  12  inches  wide,  can  in  this  way 
be  put  together  in  a  good  workmanlike  manner  in  ten 
minutes,  and  the  joint  will  stand  for  a  long  time  under  any 
strain  that  a  belt  ought  to  bear,  whether  it  be  of  gum  or 
leather. 

To  make  the  joint,  first  cut  the  belt  square ;  then  lay  out 
the  lines  for  the  holes,  so  that  when  the  ends  of  the  belt 
are  placed  together  the  distance  between  them  will  be  a 


34 


THE  OPERATORS  HANDBOOK. 


little  more  than  the  length  at  a,  Fig.  14.  Punch  the  holes, 
then  lap  the  ends,  as  in  Fig.  15,  and  drive  the  hooks  by 
keeping  a  bar  of  iron,  a  hammer,  or  some  other  weighty 
piece  beneath  the  belt.  After  the  points  of  the  hooks  are 
through  the  belt  at  both  ends,  the  joint  can  be  butted 
together  by  bending  the  belt  backward  from  the  joint 
until  the  ends  will  pass,  and  then  straightening  it.  To 

FIG.  14. 


FIG.  15. 


FIG.  15a. 

clinch  the  hooks  use  an  anvil  bar,  Fig.  15a,  closing  first 
one  end  and  then  the  other  with  a  light  hammer,  so  that 
the  belt  will  be  firmly  clamped,  lut  not  cut,  with  the  hooks. 
In  this  last  operation  lies  the  secret  of  making  these 
hook  joints  successfully ;  if  the  hooks  are  closed  properly 
they  will  not  tear  out  the  holes  like  lacing,  but  will 
pull  the  belt  asunder  at  the  holes,  proving  the  joint  to  be 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  35 

as  strong  as  any  other  portion  of  the  belt,  less  the 
weakening  effect  of  the  holes.  If  the  hooks  are  hammered 
down  too  hard  they  cut  into  the  belt  and  weaken  it. 
After  the  joint  is  closed  the  hooks  may  be  bent  to  conform 
to  the  curvature  of  the  pulleys  they  run  over.  If  one 
is  large  and  the  other  small,  the  hooks  should  be  bent 
to  fit  a  curve  between  them  in  size,  or,  if  different,  to  fit 
the  smaller  pulley. 

That  belt  hooks  have  not  become  more  popular  is  owing 
to  the  careless  manner  in  which  they  have  been  used.  A 
belt  may  be  fastened  in  almost  any  manner  with  lacing,  and 
hold  for  a  time ;  but  it.  is  not  so  with  hooks ;  they  must 
be  put  in  carefully  to  stand.  Properly  done,  they  make 
one  of  the  best  joints,  and  if  improperly  done,  perhaps  the 
very  worst. 

The  size  of  the  hooks  must  be  adapted  to  the  thickness 
and  width  of  the  belting ;  the  distance  from  the  joint  to  the 
holes  should  be  at  least  equal  to  three  thicknesses  of 
the  belt. 

The  width  of  driving  belts  and  their  length  should  be 
such,  that  when  at  angles  lower  than  30  degrees  they  will 
do  their  work  without  tension  on  the  slack  side.  By  no 
tension,  is  meant  that  the  belt  should  be  loose  enough  to 
run  in  a  curve.  Main  driving  belts  are  here  alluded  to, 
and  particular  stress  is  laid  on  this  matter,  for  no  good 
result  can  be  attained  with  a  heavy  belt  that  is  not 
capable  of  doing  its  work  mainly  by  its  weight. 

Speaking  of  weight,  it  may  be  remarked  that  in  making 
comparisons  of  cost  between  leather  and  india-rubber  belt- 
ing, the  weight  should  be  taken  into  account.  As  a  rule, 
single  leather  belts  wider  than  6  to  8  inches  are  not  to  be 
compared  in  weight  to  gum  belts,  and  gum  belts  of  two  and 
three  ply,  with  heavy  cotton  webbing,  correspond  to  double 

D  2 


36  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

leather  belts,  which  are  usually  double  the  price.  A  leather 
belt  wider  than  8  inches  should  always  be  double,  no  matter 
what  its  purpose,  unless  it  is  to  run  at  a  very  high  speed 
on  small  pulleys,  which  need  never  occur  if  machinery  is 
properly  arranged.  A  single  leather  belt  will  not  keep 
straight;  and  speaking  of  the  ordinary  belting  of  com- 
merce, the  wider  it  is,  the  greater  the  tendency  to  become 
crooked  and  irregular. 

For  the  extreme  high  speeds  sometimes  necessary  in 
wood  machines,  belts  of  cotton  webbing  can  be  used  with 
advantage.  Heavy  saddler's  webbing  coated  with  beeswax 
makes  a  belt  that  is  very  light,  and  has  a  high  tractile 
power.  When  used  the  pulleys  must  be  true  and  smooth, 
and  the  belts  kept  clear  of  flanges,  or  anything  that  will 
produce  a  rubbing  action,  as  this  soon  destroys  them. 

In  the  change  from  round  belts,  once  almost  exclusively 
used,  to  flat  ones,  we  have  no  doubt  gone  too  far ;  a  round 
belt  is  in  many  cases  much  cheaper  and  better.  Such  belts 
are  extensively  used  in  England  and  on  the  Continent, 
but  are  rarely  seen  on  American  machines.  For  the  first 
movers  to  drive  the  feed  works  of  planers  and  other  ma- 
chines, they  are  better  than  flat  belts,  especially  when 
cones  are  used  for  graduating  the  speed,  and  when  they 
have  to  run  through  shavings  or  sawdust. 

In  the  treatment  of  belts  for  wood  machines  nearly  all 
that  can  be  done  is  to  keep  them  soft;  a  coat  of  castor- 
oil  now  and  then  laid  on  with  a  brush  is  a  good  plan  for 
softening  them.  Tallow  is  as  good,  but  more  difficult  to 
apply.  For  gum  belts  no  surface  coating  can  be  so  good 
as  the  india-rubber  itself,  which  is  soluble  in,  and  infused 
by  animal  oils ;  as  they  do  not  need  softening  they  should 
be  left  alone,  as  the  safest  plan. 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  37 


HANDLING  MATERIAL. 

What  proportion  of  the  labour  of  a  wood-working  esta- 
blishment is  directed  to  moving  and  handling  material, 
cannot  be  stated,  but  that  it  is  a  fair  share  of  the  whole 
anyone  must  admit.  Handling  material  is  one  of  those 
things  which  cannot  be  done  to  any  extent  by  power ;  and  in 
machine  operations,  the  greater  part  of  the  labour  is  usually 
handling  the  stuff.  There  can  be  little  information  given 
about  handling  long  lumber,  but  the  following  suggestions 
in  regard  to  short  stuff  or  work  in  process  will  enable  the 
operator  to  get  along  without  so  much  handling,  and  car- 
rying the  stuff  from  place  to  place. 

In  arranging  machines,  always  set  them  so  as  to  leave 
truck-room  between  and  around  them ;  no  matter  how 
crowded  the  room,  this  should  be  done;  the  floor-room 
that  will  be  saved  by  piling  stuff  on  trucks  will  more  than 
make  up  for  room  lost  in  the  passages. 

In  furniture  and  chair  shops,  carriage  shops,  turning 
shops,  door,  sash  and  blind  shops,  and  in  nearly  all  of  our 
wood-working  factories,  the  material  can  be  kept  on  trucks 
instead  of  on  the  floor,  with  two  important  advantages 
gained ;  it  may  at  any  time  be  moved  from  place  to 
place,  and  can  readily  be  reached  without  stooping  to  the 
floor. 

We  may  also  mention  the  system,  order,  saving  from 
bruises,  and  the  facility  for  counting  pieces,  as  objects 
gained  by  the  truck  system,  which  is  suggested. 

The  trucks  for  machine  rooms  should  be  made  of  uniform 
size  for  each  story ;  there  is  no  use  in  depending  upon  a 
particular  truck  being  kept  for  a  special  use  ;  the  rule  is, 
to  take  the  first  one  at  hand,  and  there  is  but  little  use  in 
having  different  sizes.  These  trucks  can  be  built  as  shown 


38 


THE    OPERATOR  S    HANDBOOK. 


in  Figs.  16,  17,  for  upper  floors,  \vhere  the  stuff  is  cut  out 
and  in  process,  and  for  anything  except  heavy  loads  of 
lumber,  which  require  a  truck  that  is  lower  in  height  and 
much  stronger.  The  main  frame  should  be  of  hard  wood, 


FIG.  16. 


<§> 


FIG.  17. 


I 


I 


(Fil  ***_ 


1 


about  4x4  inches,  the  cross  rails  set  in  3^  inches  from 
the  end,  with  tenons  to  keep  them  in  place.  Two  through- 
bolts  f  in.  diameter  along  the  inside  of  the  cross  rails 
hold  the  frame  firmly  together,  and  yet  allow  it  to  spring 
in  passing  over  blocks  or  uneven  floors. 

The   common  mistake  in  making  trucks  is  in  having 
them  too  rigid  ;  they  will  not  last  long  or  work  well,  unless 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


39 


made  to  yield  at  the  corners.  The  planking  across  the  top 
can  be  nailed  to  the  side  rails ;  it  should  be  1^  or  \\  in. 
thick,  of  white  wood— sycamore,  or  some  other  tough  wood, 
that  will  stand  bruising,  and  will  not  split ;  even  pine  is 
better  than  ash  or  oak.  The  standards  should  be  ar- 
ranged to  go  either  at  the  ends  or  on  the  sides,  as  shown  in 
the  plan,  Fig.  17.  Figs.  18  and  19  show  a  complete  set  of 
irons  for  a  truck  4  feet  to  5  feet  long  and  2  feet  to  3  feet 


FIG.  18. 


FIG.  19. 


wide,  consisting  of  four  cast-iron  brackets  with  a  flange  at 
the  top  to  be  fastened  with  wood  screws ;  the  swivel  piece 
may  be  cast  of  malleable  iron  ;  the  small  screw  is  to  keep 
the  swivel  from  falling  out  when  the  truck  is  lifted ;  the 
roller  can  be  of  cast  iron;  the  staples  are  for  the  sides 
and  ends  of  the  truck,  as  in  Fig.  17 ;  these  staples  should 
be  forged  from  iron  about  1J  X  f  in.,  and  large  enough  to 
receive  a  tenon  2-J  x  li  ^n- 

With  from  six  to  twelve  of  these  trucks  on  a  floor,  or 
at  least  one  for  each  machine,  half  the  handling,  and 
nearly  all  the  carrying,  is  saved.  In  working  stuff,  two 
are  needed  at  each  machine,  so  that  the  pieces  can  be 
taken  from  one  and  placed  on  another  as  they  are 
worked. 


40  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

When  material  is  to  be  moved  from  story  to  story,  the 
trucks  can  be  run  upon  the  platform  of  the  hoist,  and 
with  their  loads  raised  or  lowered  to  where  they  are 
wanted.  A  boy  with  one  of  these  trucks  will  move  a 
thousand  pounds  the  length  or  width  of  the  shop,  and  up 
or  down  through  several  stories,  at  the  same  cost  that  a 
single  load  can  be  carried  by  a  porter,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
damage  by  having  the  stuff  thrown  down  upon  the  floor, 
and  the  loss  of  time  required  to  gather  it  up  again.  This 
system  of  roller  trucks  is  to  some  extent  in  use ;  but  it  is 
exceptional,  and  rarely  ever  carried  out  so  as  to  realize 
the  greatest  advantage  from  it. 

A  system  half  carried  out  is  as  no  system  at  all,  one 
or  two  trucks  in  a  large  shop  are  only  an  annoyance  ;  the 
men  lose  more  time  during  a  year  in  searching  or  wait- 
ing for  them,  and  in  disputing  about  them,  than  a  dozen 
additional  new  ones  would  cost. 

To  say  that  a  wood-working  establishment  which  has 
more  than  one  story  should  have  a  power  hoist,  is  to  state 
what  everyone  knows,  but  not  a  thing  which  everyone  has 
estimated  the  advantages  of.  The  question  of  saving  and 
earnings  will  be  considered  farther  on,  and  here  we  will 
only  say,  have  a  hoist  whenever  there  is  work  for  it  to  do. 
A  wood  platform  or  cage,  with  a  wire  rope  and  winding  drum 
driven  by  belts  and  a  tangent  wheel,  is  a  cheap  and  simple 
plan  for  such  hoists ;  the  gearing  is  now  furnished  by  dif- 
ferent makers  like  any  other  machines,  self-contained  and 
ready  to  erect,  including  the  cage  and  guides  if  wanted. 
Be  sure  to  have  a  reliable  safety  catch  to  prevent  falling, 
and  avoid  all  ingenious  triggers  and  self-acting  apparatus 
that  can  be  dispensed  with.  Put  up  a  caution  notice  with 
directions  for  operating  the  machinery  at  each  hatch,  and 
leave  the  rest  to  the  judgment  and  good  sense  of  the  work- 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  41 

men.  There  is  no  machinery  so  dangerous  as  that  which 
pretends  to  dispense  with  care  and  caution  on  the  part  of 
the  operator ;  and  the  greater  number  of  accidents  with 
hoists  come  from  that  class  known  as  the  absolute  safety. 
Accidents  rarely  happen  with  the  old  outside  chain  hoist, 
although  it  is  without  question  very  dangerous ;  the  reason 
is  that  we  watch  it  and  run  no  risks. 

In  connection  with  the  arrangement  of  a  mill  at  Fig.  1, 
a  tramway  through  the  centre  of  the  building  is  men- 
tioned. This  plan  is  a  good  one,  and  the  best  and 
cheapest  in  a  large  mill  or  car  shop;  but  in  furniture 
factories,  chair  factories,  door  and  sash  shops,  and  jobbing 
mills,  caster  trucks  such  as  those  just  described  for 
machine  rooms,  only  stronger,  are  even  more  convenient 
than  the  tramway. 

The  general  means  of  moving  material  may  be  said  to 
consist  in  tramways  for  horizontal  movement  in  straight 
lines,  hoists  for  vertical  movement,  and  caster  trucks  for 
distributing  in  irregular  lines ;  however,  in  any  but  the 
largest  mills,  and  for  any  but  long  and  heavy  lumber, 
the  horizontal  movement  and  the  distributing  can  be 
combined,  and  the  fixed  tramway  dispensed  with.  In 
such  '  cases  the  trucks  to  be  used  in  connection  with 
cutting  out  saws,  planing  machines,  and  for  first  floor 
purposes  generally,  should  be  framed  of  stuff  about  5x5 
inches,  and  be  correspondingly  heavy  in  all  their  parts; 
they  should  be  from  six  to  eight  feet  long,  with  three 
wheels  instead  of  four,  the  two  forward  wheels  on  a  fixed 
axis,  and  the  rear  one  swivelled.  Such  trucks  should  be 
strong  enough  to  carry  at  least  2|-  tons,  and  their  wheels 
six  to  eight  inches  diameter,  with  from  2^-  to  3^-  inches 
face.  There  is  nothing  peculiar  about  their  construction 
that  calls  for  diagrams  to  explain. 


42  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

By  laying  a  cheap  plank  floor  from  the  mill  room  to, 
or  through,  the  board  yard,  such  trucks  can  be  run  out 
and  loaded  at  any  distance  from  the  shop,  and  men  will 
prefer  to  push  in  a  thousand  feet  of  stuff  in  this  way  to 
carrying  two  boards  that  will  not  weigh  50  Ibs.  each. 

This  simple  matter  of  trucks  is  dwelt  upon  because  it  is 
perhaps  the  most  neglected  of  all  things  about  wood 
shops.  We  exhaust  our  ingenuity  in  devising  machines  to 
work  stuff  at  a  rapid  rate,  but  make  no  provision  to  bring 
the  stuff  to  or  from  the  machines;  and  with  the  exception 
of  the  large  lumber  mills  along  the  north-western  Lake 
coast,  and  the  very  largest  mills  in  cities,  it  is  unusual  to 
find  any  means  of  handling  material  that  at  all  com- 
pares with  the  completeness  in  other  details. 

Of  tramways  little  need  be  said ;  all  know  what  they 
are  for,  and  how  they  are  made.  The  difference  from 
trucks  is  that  they  can  be  used  in  one  line  only,  and  that 
the  cars  require  less  power  to  move  them  than  trucks 
with  casters.  In  many  cases  it  may  be  expedient  to 
have  both,  a  tramway  and  trucks,  but  whether  both,  or 
even  additional  means  of  handling,  are  required,  be  sure 
and  provide  whatever  will  save  carrying  stuff  or  throwing 
it  upon  the  floors. 


CLEARING  WOOD  SHOPS. 

Clearing  shops  of  cuttings,  shavings,  and  sawdust  to  a 
certain  extent  belongs  to  the  same  branch  as  moving  and 
handling  material,  and  the  same  rules  will  apply  in  many 
respects. 

There  is,  however,  this  difference,  that  from  recent 
improvements  it  is  probable  that  the  driving  power  will 
in  future  be  used  to  clear  shops,  while  we  can  hardly 


THE    OPERATORS    HANDBOOK. 


hope  to  have  it  handle  the  lumber.  There  is  at  this  time, 
in  fact,  no  need  of  saying  any  thing  about  plans  for  clearing- 
shops  except  by  pneumatic  fans,  for  they  are  in  general 
use,  and  we  may  safely  say,  where  they  are  not  in  use 
they  should  be  or  will  be.  These  pneumatic  conductors 
are  now  so  well  known  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
go  into  a  description  of  their  general  arrangement,  which 
the  reader  is  presumed  to  be  familiar  with.  The  writer 
having  been  personally  concerned  in  the  introduction  of 
this  system  in  England  and  the  continent  of  Europe, 
and  having  built  pneumatic  apparatus,  that  have  been 
in  constant  operation  since  1862,  has  no  fears  in  recom- 
mending the  system  as  practical  and  economical,  apart 
from  its  convenience  and  its  sanitary  advantages  in  getting 
rid  of  the  fine  dust  so  prejudicial  to  health,  and  one  of  the 
most  objectionable  features  of  operating  wood  machines. 

The  fans  must  be  plain,  strong  machines,  large  enough 
to  perform  their  work  easily  ;  the  vanes  strong  enough  to 
break  up  sticks  that  may  pass  into  the  fan.  The  bearings 
should  be  outside  the  casing  and  pipes ;  a  common  plan 
is  to  have  one  bearing  inside  the  induction  pipe,  where 
the  oil  is  at  once  absorbed,  and  there  is  a  continual 
danger  of  fire  from  the  bearing  heating.  Fans  made  for 
ordinary  blowing  purposes  are  not  fitted  for  this  use.  We 
give  at  Figs.  20  and  21,  side  and  front  elevations  of  the 
fans  used  in  England. 

The  casing  is  cast  in  one  piece  J  in.  thick ;  the  vanes 
are  of  forged  or  malleable  iron ;  the  shaft  is  If  in.  diameter 
of  steel  running  in  brass  bearings  outside  the  casing. 

The  size  of  the  fans  for  clearing  wood  shops  ..must 
depend  upon  the  number  of  inlets,  openings,  or,  as  we 
will  call  them,  leaks  into  the  induction  pipes.  A  blower 
20  in.  diameter  and  5-inch  vanes,  would  clear  the  largest 
mill,  so  far  as  conducting  the  shavings  and  dust,  but  could 


THE    OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


not  maintain  a  current  strong  enough,  after  supplying  the 
inlets,  to  lift  the  shavings.  For  this  reason,  it  is  easy  to 
see  the  importance  of  having  the  collecting  hoods  fit 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  45 

well,  and  avoiding  all  possible  leaks  into  the  pipes.  The 
writer  is  at  the  present  time  engaged  in  experiments 
to  test  the  practicability  of  exhausting  the  air  from 
the  magazine  by  fans  so  as  to  induce  currents  in  the 
collecting  pipes  and  avoid  the  necessity  of  passing  the 
shavings  through  the  fan.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  give 
any  rule  for  the  size  of  pipes  without  assuming  some 
special  premises  to  base  such  dimensions  on.  We  will, 
however,  say  that  starting  with  5  inches  diameter  for  the 
smallest  size  for  a  main  pipe,  there  should  be  added  at 
least  10  inches  of  sectional  area  for  each  machine  that  is 
connected,  except  surfacing  or  dimension  planing  ma- 
chines, which  will  need  twice  as  much. 

Galvanized  or  zinc-coated  shset  iron  from  18  to  24 
gauge,  is  a  good  material  for  condueting-pipes. 

The  elbows  should  be  made  with  a  radius  of  10  inches 
or  more  on  the  short  side,  and  everything  avoided  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  pipes  that  will  endanger  their  choking. 
When  machines  are  not  in  use,  it  is  well  to  close  off  the 
induction  pipes  with  a  ball  of  paper  or  waste ;  dampers- 
or  valves  can  be  made  in  the  pipes  for  this  purpose,  but  if 
constructed  so  that  they  will  not  obstruct  the  pipe  when  it 
is  in  use,  they  are  expensive,  and  unnecessary  except  for 
floor  pipes,  noticed  farther  on. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  have  the  fine  dust  separated 
from  the  shavings  and  sawdust ;  even  if  they  are  only 
to  be  used  for  fuel,  and  the  magazine  or  shavings  room 
should  be  arranged  to  allow  the  dust  to  pass  off  at  the 
top,  as  in  Fig.  22. 

The  magazines  should  be  fireproof  throughout,  and 
extend  above  the  building  to  such  a  height  that  the 
dust  will  not  be  carried  through  the  windows  after  it 
has  escaped  at  the  top.  As  it  is  often  expensive  to 
carry  the  brickwork  high  enough  to  effect  this  object,  a 


46 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


sheet-iron  flue  or  uptake  can  be  used,  as  shown  in  Fig.  22. 
The  sectional  area  of  this  flue  when  used  should  be 
TIG.  22.  from  ten  to  fifteen  times  as 

large  as  the  pipe  leading  into 
the  magazine,  otherwise  the 
current  will  be  strong  enough 
to  not  only  carry  off  the  fine 
dust  but  the  lighter  shavings 
from  the  benches. 

There  should  be  a  swing 
trap-door  at  the  bottom  of  the 
uptake,  or  at  the  top  of  the 
brickwork  if  an  iron  flue  is  not 
used,  that  can  be  instantly 
closed  from  the  outside  if  the 
shavings  in  the  magazine  should 
catch  fire.  This  trap  can  be 
pivoted  on  a  shaft  to  extend 
out  through  the  brickwork,  and 
be  operated  by  a  lever  on  the 
outside. 

The  discharging  door  below 
should  be  closed  by  means  of 
a  sliding  iron  plate,  counter- 
weighted  and  working  in 
grooves,  so  that  it  will  rest 
on  the  shavings  when  the 
magazine  is  full,  or  partially 
full,  prevent  the  dust  from 
escaping,  and  at  the  same  time 
prevent  any  circulation  of  air 
in  the  case  of  fire. 

Inlets  or  openings,  to  take 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  47 

off  sweepings,  should  be  provided  at  suitable  places  for 
clearing  the  floors.  If  opening  downward  the  orifices 
should  be  at  least  as  small  as  the  pipe,  and  never  made  in 
a  hopper  form,  as  they  will  soon  be  clogged  with  blocks  or 

sticks. 

FIG.  23. 


Floor. 


A  better  plan  for  these  floor  openings  for  sweepings,  is 
to  bring  down  a  pipe  from  the  main  overhead,  cutting 
it  away  at  one  side,  Fig.  23,  and  closing  the  aperture 
with  a  slide  door  when  not  in  use;  this  plan  is  much 


48  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

better  for  many  reasons  than  inlets  cut  vertically  through 
the  floors.  The  pipe  can  come  down  alongside  a  post  or 
the  wall,  not  interfering  with  the  room ;  arranged  in  this 
way  there  is  but  little  danger  of  its  choking,  or  having 
lost  tools,  nails,  or  blocks,  get  into  it.  For  conducting  saw- 
dust alone  small  tin  pipes,  2  to  3  inches  diameter,  will  do. 

In  erecting  a  set  of  pipes  and  apparatus  of  this  kind 
to  clear  a  shop,  the  person  in  charge  should  avail  himself 
of  any  examples  that  may  be  in  the  vicinity,  if  they  are 
good  and  have  been  successful ;  it  is  quite  a  new  thing, 
although  extensively  applied,  and  there  is  a  great  deal  yet 
to  be  learned  by  experience. 

The  danger  of  fire  from  this  apparatus,  once  much 
apprehended,  was  owing  to  the  use  of  wooden  conducting 
pipes,  pockets  and  corners,  where  fine  dust  would  accumu- 
late, and  then  explode  by  a  spark  communicated  from  a 
hot  bearing,  lucifer  matches  being  dropped  among  the 
shavings,  or  by  sparks  from  the  fan  striking  grit  or 
nails.  The  inflammable  and  explosive  nature  of  wood 
dust  is  but  little  understood  and  not  generally  known, 
but  few  are  aware  that  it  is  a  fulminate  like  gun- 
powder. Any  dust  of  combustible  material,  or  even  that 
of  cast  iron,  when  floating  in,  and  thickly  distributed  in 
the  air,  explodes  or  burns  up  with  great  force.  To  prove 
this,  let  anyone  hold  a  candle  beneath  a  girder  or  beam 
in  a  wood  shop  and  sweep  off  the  fine  dust  from  its  top 
so  as  to  fall  on  the  light,  and  they  will  be  convinced  of 
its  explosive  nature.  This  is  no  doubt  the  origin  of  nearly 
all  the  fires  that  have  been  attributed  to  pneumatic  ap- 
paratus ;  as  soon  as  caught,  the  fire  was  by  means  of  the 
wooden  pipes  immediately  carried  throughout  the  whole 
building,  or  as  far  as  the  air  currents  extended. 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  49 

PRECAUTIONS  AGAINST  FIRE. 

Besides  what  has  been  said  upon  the  danger  of  wood  dust 
in  the  last  article,  we  will  add  a  word  about  other  sources 
of  fire,  one  of  the  evils  that  wood  manufacturers  have 
particularly  to  contend  with.  Insurance  rates  for  wood 
shops  are,  in  America,  from  three  to  five  times  as  high  as 
in  machine  shops  and  other  places,  where,  if  the  wood 
shops  were  carefully  managed,  the  risk  would  be  equally 
great.  Everyone  who  has  any  charge  in  a  wood  shop 
should  continually  study  the  possible  sources  of  fire.  As 
accidents  do  not  often  happen  when  they  are  expected, 
so  fires  do  not  come  from  sources  that  are  foreseen.  Fires 
are  generally  mysterious,  we  rarely  know  just  how  they 
occur,  yet  there  is  no  want  of  sources  for  them,  and  con- 
sidering the  little  care  that  is  exercised  in  most  shops  to 
guard  against  fires,  the  only  wonder  is  they  do  not  all 
burn  down  as  fast  as  built.  There  is  no  desire  to  exag- 
gerate this  matter,  but  to  state  it  in  a  positive  way. 
The  sources  of  fire  about  wood  shops  are  generally  bear- 
ings, smoking,  matches,  stoves,  sparks  from  the  furnace, 
lightning,  and  incendiarism,  and  also  the  want  of  means 
to  put  out  incipient  fires,  for  such  want  is  certainly 
to  be  set  down  among  the  causes  of  destructive  fires. 
To  consider  these  several  sources ; — bearings  need  not  be 
made  so  as  to  take  fire ;  there  should  be  no  wood  about 
them,  no  accumulation  of  shavings,  or  of  oil  and  sawdust; 
smoking,  we  need  hardly  say,  should  not  be  allowed  on  the 
premises;  matches  are  not  very  dangerous  and  can  be 
carefully  used ;  stoves  are  not  often  needed  in  shops 
where  there  is  steam  power,  and  when  they  are  used,  can 
be  made  comparatively  safe  by  setting  them  on  an  elevated 
iron  platform ;  sparks  from  the  furnace  can  only  be  a 


50  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

source  of  danger  when  there  is  great  negligence  in  the 
plan  of  its  construction  or  in  its  care ;  and  finally,  there 
is  but  little  danger  from  any  or  all  of  these  sources  in  a 
clean  orderly  shop.     Disposing  of  the  matter  in  this  way, 
it  may  be  said  that  it  is  quite  easy  to  avoid  danger  from 
fire.     There  are  none  of  the  things  enumerated  but  what 
are  easily  guarded  against   if  taken  in   time  and   fully 
considered.    To  understand  sources  of  fire  is  quite  another 
thing,  however,  from  merely  thinking  of  them  and  being 
aware  of  their  existence;   they   must  be  considered  on 
scientific  principles,  like   everything  else  connected  with 
technical  matters,  and  when  understood  must  be  attended 
to  thoroughly,  promptly,  and  persistently.     It  is  not  an 
easy  thing  to  fire  a  shop  when  there  is  no  accumulation 
of  shavings,  and  a  hard  thing  to  guard  against  fire  when 
there  is  such  accumulation.     The  floors  should  be  kept 
clean,  no  matter   what  it   costs   to   keep   them  so,   and 
if  the  business  will  not  otherwise  afford  it,  pay  the  in- 
surance policy  to  a  porter  to  sweep  up  and  watch  for  fire. 
The  chances  are  that  you  will  save  more  in  ten  years  than 
by  insuring.      On   every  floor  and  in   each   room   there 
should  be  kept  in  some   convenient  place  a  number  of 
wooden  pails  filled  with  water,  not    to  be   used  to   fill 
up  the   grindstone  troughs,   nor  to  wash  up   with,   but 
marked  "  fire,"  and  to  be  let  alone  unless  needed  for  that 
purpose.     It  is  but  little  trouble  to  keep  them  filled,  and 
some  cheap  chemicals,  say  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid, 
will  keep   the  water   pure   in   the   summer  during  hot 
weather.    Fifty  pails  of  this  kind,  that  will  cost  fifteen 
dollars,  are  worth  more  in  a  wood  shop  than  a  dozen 
chemical  annihilators,  steam  pumps,  or  other  contrivances 
which  men  cannot  use  when  excited.     A  watchman,  no 
matter  how  stupid  he  may  be,  understands  a  water  pail, 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  51 

and  will  not  fail  to  use  it  if  he  can  get  it,  but  would 
not  under  excitement  be  able  even  to  turn  a  stop-cock, 
or  sound  an  alarm  signal  if  a  fire  should  occur.  The 
responsibility  of  these  precautions  against  fire  rests  mainly 
with  the  managers  and  operators,  proprietors  do  not  always 
understand  them,  and  if  they  did,  cannot  watch  them.  We 
would  therefore  urge  a  carefulness  about  fires,  a  thorough 
study  of  all  that  may  originate  them,  and  the  surest 
means  of  arresting  them,  as  one  of  the  first  and  highest 
qualifications  of  a  competent  machine  operator  and  wood 
workman. 

Dirty  shops  and  want  of  system  are  the  common  sources 
of  fires ;  the  opposite,  clean  shops  and  perfect  system,  are 
the  great  safeguards  against  them.  A  clean  shop  guards 
against  exposure,  and  system  detects  and  anticipates  the 
various  ways  in  which  fire  may  be  kindled. 

The  pneumatic  fan  arrangement  for  clearing,  alluded  to 
before,  will  no  doubt  add  much  to  the  safety  from  fire,  by 
keeping  out  the  shavings  and  generally  encouraging  order 
and  cleanliness. 


SPEED  OF  WOOD  MACHINES. 

The  speed  at  which  machines  should  run  to  give  the 
best  result,  is  a  question  that  operators  should  understand. 
It  is  a  matter  which  they  are  expected  as  a  rule  to  control, 
even  when  they  do  not  direct  the  original  arrangement 
for  speeds.  To  prove  that  the  proper  speed  of  machines  is 
an  intricate,  or  at  least  an  undetermined  matter,  we  need 
only  refer  to  the  diversity  of  opinion  among  mechanics, 
and  the  want  of  any  opinion  at  all  with  a  great  many 
who  have  not  studied  the  matter.  This  is  not  stated  in 

E  2 


52  THE    OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 

a  fault-finding  spirit,  but  to  show  that  it  is  no  easy  matter 
to  tell  how  fast  saws,  cutter  spindles,  boring  and  mortising 
or  other  tools,  should  run. 

If  the  speed  of  a  machine  could  be  premised  from  that 
needed  for  the  cutting  edges  alone,  we  should  have  a  general 
rule  to  apply,  but  the  limit  of  speed  is  more  frequently 
taken  from  the  conditions  of  the  spindles  and  bearings, 
than  from  the  cutting  action.  Cutter-heads  more  than 
4  inches  diameter  can  generally  be  moved  as  fast  as  the 
edges  need  to  run  to  give  a  good  result,  say  within  5000 
revolutions  a  minute,  or  5000  feet  of  movement  with  the 
edges  ;  but  when  the  cutter-heads  are  smaller,  the  spindles 
are  not  diminished  in  the  same  ratio,  and  the  speed  must 
be  slower.  Always  consider  the  cutter  movement  as 
the  base  in  estimating  speeds,  instead  of  the  number  of 
revolutions  made  by  the  spindle.  A  cutter  on  a  3-inch 
head,  making  4000  revolutions  a  minute,  is  only  moving 
as  fast  as  one  on  a  6-inch  head  at  2000  revolutions ;  yet 
it  is  quite  common,  and  a  habit  hard  to  avoid,  to  consider 
all  spindles  as  wanting  a  common  speed  of  from  3000  to 
5000  revolutions  a  minute,  without  considering  the  move- 
ment of  the  edges. 

Perhaps  as  good  a  rule  as  can  be  used  is  to  assume  a 
4-inch  cutter-head  to  make  4000  revolutions  a  minute,  as  a 
base  or  unit  of  speed ;  this  makes  approximately  4000  feet 
a  minute  of  cutting  movement;  then  add  500  feet  a 
minute  for  each  inch  of  diameter  that  is  added  to  the 
cutter-head ;  this  makes,  with  10  inches  diameter,  a 
speed  of  7000  feet  a  minute,  and  for  16  inches  diameter 
10,000  feet  a  minute,  which  could  then  become  a  con- 
stant as  a  maximum  speed  for  all  larger  diameters. 
This,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  assumed  for  strong 
cutter-heads  of  forged  or  malleable  iron,  steel,  or  brass, 


THE  OPERATORS  HANDBOOK. 


and  not  cast  iron,  which  should  never  be  used  for  high 
speeds. 

Beversing  the  rule,  from  4  inches  diameter,  with  4000 
feet  of  cutting  movement ;  deduct  750  feet  of  the  movement 
for  each  inch  of  diameter  that  the  heads  are  reduced ; 
this,  at  one  inch,  brings  the  cutting  speed  to  1750  feet 
a  minute  with  7000  revolutions  of  the  spindle,  about  a 
practical  limit.  From  this  we  have  the  following  Table, 
which  can  be  used  for  reference : — 

SPEED  OF  WOOD  MACHINES. 


Diameter  of 
Cutter-head. 

Feet  of  Cutting 
Movement  a 
minute. 

Approximate 
Number  of 
Revolutions 
a  minute. 

Average  Speed  of 
Bearing  Surfaces 
a  minute 
in  feet. 

Ratio  of 
Movement  in 
the  Bearings. 

inches. 

1 

1,750 

7000 

875 

8 

2 

2,500 

5000 

937 

9 

3 

3,250 

4333 

1083 

10 

4 

4,000 

4000 

1125 

11 

5 

4,500 

3600 

1125 

11 

6 

5,000 

3333 

1145 

11 

7 

5,500 

3142 

1277 

13 

8 

6,000 

3000 

1406 

14 

9 

6,500 

2880 

1444 

14 

10 

7,000 

2880 

1445 

14 

n 

7,500 

2706 

1450 

14 

12 

8,000 

2666 

1465 

15 

•       13 

8,500 

2615 

1525 

15 

14 

9,000 

2576 

1541 

lo 

15 

9,500 

2533 

1551 

15 

16 

10,000 

2500 

1512 

15 

17 

10,000 

2352 

1470 

15 

18 

10,000 

2222 

1417 

14 

19 

10,000 

2105 

1382 

14 

20 

10,000 

2000 

1370 

14 

24 

10,000 

1666 

1250 

13 

30 

10,000 

1333 

1083 

11 

36 

10,000 

1111 

987 

10 

40 

10,100 

1000 

1000 

10 

NOTE. — These  estimates,  except  the  size  of  the  cutter-heads,  are  approxi- 
mate only,  to  give  round  numbers. 


54  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

The  speed  of  the  line  shafting  should  in  all  cases  be  as 
great  as  the  bearings  will  stand  with  safety ;  200  to  250 
revolutions  for  3-inch  shafts,  and  250  to  300  revolutions 
a  minute  for  2J-inch  shafts,  make  a  good  rule,  to  be 
modified  of  course  by  the  kind  of  bearings  used.  Coun- 
tershafts, as  a  rule,  can  run  three  times  as  fast.  36-inch 
pulleys,  on  the  line  shaft,  with  12-inch  tight  and  loose 
pulleys  on  the  countershafts,  is  a  good  arrangement  for  such 
shafts  as  drive  cutter  spindles. 

Speeds  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  arranged  to  start 
from  line-shaft  pulleys  of  a  uniform  diameter,  so  that 
machines  can  be  exchanged,  or  moved  from  one  place  to 
another,  without  taking  down  the  line  shaft  each  time  to 
put  on  a  new  pulley.  There  is  something  strange  in  the 
fact  that  machine  builders  pay  no  attention  to  this  matter ; 
even  machine  tools  that  have  nearly  a  constant  velocity, 
and  require  nearly  a  constant  amount  of  power,  are 
arranged  to  be  driven  with  pulleys  varying  from  6  to  24 
inches  diameter.  Most  builders,  however,  are  willing  to 
modify  their  countershafts  to  suit  speeds  and  pulleys,  if  a 
special  order  is  given,  so  that  the  fault  rests  mainly  with 
those  who  purchase  the  machines. 

The  cylinders  of  planing  machines  being  strong  and 
safe,  and  the  rate  of  feed  needed  as  great  as  possible,  they 
can  be  run  at  a  speed  one-fourth  greater  than  that  given 
in  the  Table. 

Boring  machines  to  operate  screw-bits  should  run  from 
1000  to  2000  revolutions  a  minute,  according  to  the  kind 
of  wood  or  the  size  of  the  bits  used. 

For  all  reciprocating  machines  there  is  a  general  rule 
that  applies,  which  is  to  run  them  as  fast  as  they  will 
stand;  or,  in  other  words,  their  work  always  requires 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  55 

more  speed  tban  it  is  possible  to  give  them.  This  is 
certainly  not  a  very  comprehensive  rule,  but  another 
rule,  infinitely  better,  is  to  "  use  them  only  when  they 
cannot  be  avoided,"  no  matter  to  what  purpose  they  are 
directed.  For  ordinary  reciprocating  machines  the  follow- 
ing list  of  speeds  is  given,  for  which  we  trust  the  reader 
will  not  require  any  special  data,  but  accept  it  on  faith 
and  as  a  matter  of  experience : — 

Revolutions  a  minute. 

Resawing  machines  with  one  saw       ..      ..     250  to  300 
Scroll  saw  with  sash  300      400 


Jig  saws  with  spring  tension  500 

„  unstrained  saws 800 

Mortising  machines  with  movable  table  . .  300 

„  „  chisel-feed  ..  ..  250 

„  heavy,  for  car  work  . .  200 


800 

1500 

450 

350 

300 


Circular  saws  can  be  run  at  least  a  fourth  faster  than 
other  cutting  tools,  which  can,  for  ordinary  cases,  be  added 
to  the  estimates  in  the  Table  for  rotary  motion.  The 
manner  in  which  a  circular  saw  is  hammered  has  much  to 
do  with  the  speed  at  which  it  can  be  run,  and  often  when 
a  saw  becomes  limber  and  "  runs,"  it  is  the  fault  of  the 
hammering  instead  of  the  speed.  When  slack  on  the 
periphery  it  will  not  stand  speed,  and  becomes  weaker  and 
bends  more  readily  when  in  motion  than  when  it  is  still ; 
on  the  contrary,  if  it  is  properly  hammered  a  little  tight, 
as  it  is  termed,  on  the  periphery,  it  becomes  more  rigid 
when  in  motion  up  to  a  certain  limit.  The  theory  of  this 
is  that  the  steel  is  elastic,  and  is  stretched  by  the 
centrifugal  strain  in  proportion  to  the  speed,  which  is 
greatest  at  the  teeth  and  diminishes  to  the  centre. 

If  saws  indicate  a  tendency  to  spring  and  a  want  of 
rigidity,  have  them  re-hammered  by  an  experienced  smith, 


56  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

before  changing  the  speed  to  remedy  it.  Cutting  wood 
is  a  little  like  cutting  iron ;  hard  wood  cannot  be  cut 
at  so  high  a  speed  as  soft  wood.  Anyone  who  has  had 
experience  in  working  boxwood,  cocoa,  rosewood,  or  lig- 
num vitae,  will  have  noticed  that  a  high  speed  soon  de- 
stroys the  edges  by  overheating,  especially  with  boring 
tools,  or  turning  tools  that  act  continuously.  The  use  of 
these  hard  varieties  of  wood  is,  however,  so  exceptional 
in  America,  that  the  matter  need  not  be  discussed  here, 
further  than  to  say  that  a  moulding  or  a  planing  machine 
that  is  to  run  mainly  upon  walnut,  ash,  oak,  or  any  of 
the  native  hard  woods,  will  give  a  better  result  if  speeded 
one-fourth  slower  than  for  pine  or  other  soft  woods. 


POWER  NEEDED  TO  DRIVE  MACHINES. 

The  article  on  speeds  for  machines  was  commenced 
by  informing  the  reader  that  no  positive  rules  could  be 
given.  The  present  one,  for  stronger  reasons,  should 
perhaps  be  commenced  in  the  same  way.  The  power  is 
something,  however,  which  some  one  must  understand, 
and  which  all  must  be  more  or  less  conversant  with.  It 
is  one  of  the  first  considerations  in  making  plans  for  a 
mill,  or  for  wood  manufacture  of  any  kind.  It  may 
seem  arbitrary,  in  dealing  with  a  new  subject  like  the 
operation  of  wood  machines,  to  make  a  list  of  and  set 
down  the  power  needed  to  drive  each  machine.  It  is, 
however,  all  that  can  be  done  in  the  absence  of  those 
careful  experiments  that  have  fixed  the  measure  of  power 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  57 

for  other  duties  almost  as  diversified  and  irregular.  In 
our  American  shops  from  two  to  four  times  as  much 
wood  is  planed  off  as  in  Europe.  The  lumber  is  cut  to 
size  whilst  green,  and  then  seasoned,  so  that  it  takes  about 
an  eighth  of  an  inch  to  dress  boards,  to  say  nothing  of 
irregular  sawing.  Foreign  planing  machines  are  driven 
with  belts  one-fourth  the  width  of  the  cutters,  while 
American  machines  have,  or  ought  to  have,  twice  as 
much  width  of  belt ;  and,  of  course,  consume  power  in 
proportion.  As  a  general  rule,  for  ordinary  planing, 
with  flat  cutters  the  belts  should  be  one-half  the  width 
of  the  cutters,  running  on  pulleys  whose  diameter  equals 
the  cutter-heads,  or  is  in  the  same  proportion ;  that  is,  if 
the  pulleys  are  half  the  diameter  of  the  cutter-head,  the 
belt  should  be  as  wide  as  the  cutter,  and  so  on.  This  is  for 
top  cutters  that  bring  the  stuff  parallel ;  for  bottom  cutters, 
and  for  all  other  flat  cutters  that  work  on  gauged  stuff, 
one-third  less  will  do. 

Assuming  a  rule  for  belts  would  seem  to  be  the  same  thing 
as  establishing  an  estimate  for  the  power  required  to  run 
machines,  and  it  would  be  in  most  cases,  but  not  for  wood 
machines.  The  high  speed  diminishes  pulley  contact,  and 
the  dust  and  shavings  keep  the  belts  dry,  diminishing 
their  tractile  force ;  besides,  they  must  be  loose,  to  prevent 
the  bearings  from  heating,  so  that  if  we  were  to  reckon  up 
the  amount  of  power  to  drive  a  24-inch  double  surfacing 
planer,  according  to  the  accepted  standard  for  measuring 
the  power  of  belts,  it  would  in  most  mills  leave  nothing 
for  the  rest  of  the  machines.  Experience  has,  however, 
demonstrated  certain  widths  as  sufficient,  and  appended  is 
a  list  of  machines  with  an  estimate  in  horse  power  as  a 
unit.  To  determine  the  size  of  an  engine  to  drive  wood 


58  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

machine?,  3  in.  of  piston  area  to  each  horse  power  will  be 
found  sufficient,  if  other  conditions  are  correct. 

POWER   NEEDED   TO   DRIVE   MACHINES. 

No.  of  H.P. 

30-inch  surfacing  planer,  one  tide    „ 8 

30     „                „                 two  sides 10 

24    „                „                 one  side G 

24     „                 „                  two  sides 8 

14     „    planing  and  matching  machine G 

14    „                „                    „                    with  bottom  cylinder  7 

8     „     moulding  machine,  four  sides      5 

6     „                „                    „                     3 

4    „     sash  moulding  machine,  three  sides 2 

Circular  saws  for  each  inch  of  diameter  above  the  table       . .  1 

Mortising  machine  for  light  work  to  f  inch 1| 

„                „            heavy  work  to  2  inches       3 

Rotary  mortising  machine  for  chair  work       1 

„                       „                    framing    ..      ..      3 

Tenoning  machine  for  joiner  and  cabinet  work      2 

„                „            framing 4 

Jig  saw  for  fret  work 1 

Band  saw  to  1 -inch  blades         3 

Shaping  machine,  two  spindles         2 

Wood-turning  lathe 1 

Blower  for  clearing  shavings,  &c 1  to  2 

Boring  machines 1  to  2 

For  grindstones,  emery  wheels,  buffing  wheels,  hoisting 
machines,  and  other  details,  add  one  horse  power  for  each 
ten  men  employed;  the  resistance  of  shafting,  when  of 
unusual  length,  must  also  be  taken  into  account. 

In  all  estimates  of  the  power  needed  to  operate  machines, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  power  used  is  generally 
as  the  amount  of  material  that  is  passed  through  the 
machines,  so  that  the  aggregate  must  be  based  upon  the 
length  of  time,  or  the  constancy  with  which  the  machines 
are  run.  There  must,  of  course,  be  enough  provided  to 
drive  all  the  machines  at  one  time,  and  to  their  fullest 
capacity,  but  in  making  estimates  for  rented  power  where 
it  is  employed  at  intervals,  or  when  but  a  part  of  the 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  59 

machines  run   at   one  time,   the   amount   used   is  quite 
different  from  what  the  Table  would  indicate. 

The  power  needed  and  the  power  consumed  in  wood 
shops  are  two  quite  different  things.  The  old  saying 
that  time  is  money,  is  equally  and  more  obviously  true 
if  rendered,  power  is  money.  It  is  an  element  of  cost, 
just  like  oil,  tools,  or  lumber.  Power  is,  however,  a  less 
tangible  thing,  and  because  it  is  not  seen  and  handled, 
is  too  often  allowed  ±o  waste  and  escape  under  the 
notice  of  those  who  are  rigidly  careful  in  other  matters. 
How  common  it  is  in  going  into  a  shop  to  hear  the 
belts  screeching  on  the  pulleys,  belts  running  half  on 
the  tight  pulley  when  it  is  standing,  or  sometimes  a 
machine  blocked  to  keep  it  from  starting,  with  the 
belts  dragging  on  the  pulleys.  All  this  means  waste  of 
coal  and  waste  of  money,  not  by  loss  of  power  alone, 
but  by  the  destruction  of  belts.  If  a  belt  is  allowed  to 
rub  on  a  tight  pulley,  or  any  other  fixed  object,  it  is  at 
once  heated  and  stretched,  and,  as  it  stretches  on  one  side, 
the  tendency  is  to  draw  it  more  on  to  this  object;  if 
on  the  edges  of  tight  pulleys,  which  is  most  common, 
its  driving  power  is  impaired  to  the  extent  that  it  is 
rubbed  or  stretched  on  its  edges;  as  no  contact  takes 
place  when  it  is  shifted.  Whenever  a  heated  bearing  is 
suspected,  the  rule  is  to  hunt  it  up  at  once  and  correct 
it ;  the  same  thing  should  be  done  with  the  screeching  of 
belts ;  whenever  heard,  look  it  out,  and  change  the 
shafting  until  it  runs  true.  A  belt  always  runs  to  the 
nearest  end  of  a  shaft,  as  towards  the  line  a,  Fig.  24, 
which  is  just  the  opposite  way  from  what  is  generally 
supposed.  The  old  theory  that  a  belt  always  runs  to  the 
highest  part  may  be  true,  and  is  undoubtedly  true  with 
reference  to  the  convexity  of  the  face  of  pulleys,  but  does 


60  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

not  apply  to  pulleys  that  are  set  diagonally  to  the  line 
of  the  belt.     In  Fig.  24  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  pulley  1, 


FIG.  24. 


standing  in  the  position  shown,  will  wind  the  belt  spirally, 
like  the  thread  of  a  screw,  whose  pitch  is  equal  to  the 
space  seen  at  2,  between  the  dotted  line  and  the  edge  of 
the  pulley,  or,  in  oilier  words,  the  amount  that  the  pulley 
is  out  of  truth. 

The  other  edge,  which  may  be  called  the  high  one,  has 
its  influence  on  the  belt,  but  it  is  trifling  when  compared 
to  the  spiral  winding  action  whicli  carries  the  belt  to  one 
side  just  as  positively  as  a  shifter  would. 


STOPPING  AND  STAKTING  MACHINES. 

The  resistance  offered  by  a  machine  in  starting,  is  as 
the  inertia  of  the  parts  before  they  are  in  motion,  or  as 
their  momentum  after  they  are  in  motion,  and  as  mo- 
mentum is  as  the  weight  multiplied  into  the  velocity, 
wood  machines,  by  reason  of  their  great  speed,  are  heavy 


THE    OPERATORS   HANDBOOK.  01 

to  start ;  especially  planing  and  moulding  machines  that 
have  heavy  cutter-heads.  Shifting  pulleys,  or  tight  and 
loose  pulleys  as  they  are  generally  called,  are  used  almost 
exclusively  in  our  wood  shops,  and  are  no  doubt  the  best 
means  there  are  of  stopping  and  starting,  except  the  idle 
tension  pulley,  which  can  be  used  only  in  particular  cases. 
We  should  perhaps  also  except  the  plan  of  using  an 
independent  shaft,  shown  Fig.  25,  in  which  1  is  the 

FIG.  25. 


countershaft,  and  2  an  idle  shaft  carrying  the  stopping 
pulley.  This,  although  a  good  device,  is  difficult  to  erect 
and  keep  in  line,  besides  being  too  expensive  to  come 
into  general  use.  Its  merits,  however,  aside  from  these 
objections,  will  at  once  be  conceded. 

In  a  large  mill  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  the  shifting  pulleys 
are  all  arranged  on  this  plan,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the 
extra  expense  of  first  cost  is  more  than  made  up  by  avoid- 
ing the  detention  incident  to  having  the  pulleys  run  loose 
on  the  shaft. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  some  modification  of  the  friction 
clutch  will  be  made  that  has  the  needed  qualities  of 
endurance  and  power,  to  take  the  place  of  shifting  pulleys, 
for  high  speeds ;  it  however  lacks  now  much  of  the  sim- 
plicity and  capacity  for  wear,  that  would  fit  it  for  the 
purpose  about  wood- working  establishments. 

Shifting  pulleys  do  very  well  at  low  speeds  when  the 


62  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

shafts  are  not  larger  than  2  inches  in  diameter,  and  the 
motion  is  not  more  than  500  revolutions  a  rniimte,  but 
at  the  high  speeds  which  are  necessary  with  wood 
machines,  they  are  a  great  source  of  trouble  and  annoy* 
ance,  and  should  be  made  with  great  care,  and  carefully 
looked  after  for  a  time  when  first  started. 

In  making  plans  for,  or  in  gi\7ing  orders  for  wood 
machines,  the  loose  pulleys  should  have  special  attention. 
The  holes  should  be  bored  and  reamed  to  standard  sizes, 
so  that  a  pulley  may  be  exchanged  from  one  shaft  to 
another,  or  replaced  at  any  time  without  the  trouble  of 
making  a  special  fit. 

Before  erecting  a  countershaft  or  starting  a  machine 
that  has  loose  pulleys,  always  see  to  the  fit,  the  character 
of  the  hole,  and  that  they  are  clean  and  well  oiled  at  the 
start. 

The  fit  should  be  loose,  not  too  loose,  but  so  as  to 
be  felt  in  shaking  the  pulley ;  the  hole  will  show  on  its 
sides,  from  the  rubbing  of  the  mandril  used  in  turning, 
whether  it  is  true  or  not.  A  little  time  spent  in  looking 
after  these  things  before  starting,  often  saves  detention 
and  accident  afterwards,  and  as  the  operator  has  the  care, 
and  generally  the  responsibility  of  loose  pulleys  sticking, 
or  cutting,  it  is  important  that  he  should  understand  the 
cause  of  the  difficulty  and  how  to  correct  it.  It  is  true  the 
machinist  who  builds  wood  machines  should  assume  the 
responsibility  and  always  fit  the  work  properly,  but  if 
he  does  not,  it  is  the  operator's  business  to  shift  the 
responsibility  to  whom  it  belongs. 

Loose  pulleys  will  give  trouble  now  and  then,  no 
matter  how  well  they  are  fitted,  and  in  erecting  new 
works,  or  in  purchasing  new  machines,  they  should  be 
carefully  looked  after. 


THE    OPERATORS    HANDBOOK. 


At  the  risk  of  recommending  a  plan  that  seems 
theoretically  incorrect,  it  is  suggested  that  for  high-speed 
loose  pulleys,  there  should  be  an  oil  groove  cut  in  the 
hub,  as  shown  in  Fig.  26 — a  deep  narrow  groove  parallel 
to  the  shaft,  and  tapering  from  the  ends  to  the  middle,  as 


FIG.  2G. 


FIG.  27. 


FIG.  28. 


shown  in  the  sections,  Figs.  26,  27.  Such  grooves  would 
be  supposed  to  cause  an  unequal  wear  in  the  hole  because 
of  the  surface  cut  away  at  one  side,  but  it  will  not  be 
found  so  in  practice. 

A  better,  although  more  expensive  plan,  is  to  have 
grooves  cut  through  the  hub,  as  in  Fig.  28 ;  these  can  be 
filled  with  brass  antifriction  metal,  or 
what  is  equally  good,  pear  wood.  The 
grooves  break  what  is  termed  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  bearing,  a  principle  gene- 
rally recognized  as  a  safeguard  against 
abrasion  or  cutting. 

The  proportion  of  the  hubs  has  much 
to  do   with   the   performance   of  loose 
pulleys.     A  too  common  custom  is  to  make  the  hubs  on 
the  light  and  loose  pulleys,  of  equal  length,   losing   a 
large  amount  of  bearing  surface  that  might  with  ad  van- 


THE    OPERATORS    HANBDOOK. 


FIG.  29. 


tage  be  added  to  the  loose  pulley,  and  is  not  needed  on 
the  fast.  Fig.  29  is  the  proper  plan  of  arranging  the 
hubs  of  shifting  pulleys,  especially  for  wood  machinery, 

where  high  speed  and 
wood  dust  are  to  be  con- 
tended with.  The  hubs  of 
loose  pulleys  to  3  inches 
face  should  project  -J  in. 
on  each  side  of  the  rim, 
and  for  faces  of  greater 
width,  1  inch  on  each 
side. 

Loose  pulleys  running 
on  studs  or  fixed  shafts 
cannot  be  oiled  by  means 

of  oil  holes  drilled  in  the  hub ;  when  a  shaft  is  in  motion 
and  the  pulley  is  stopped  the  oil  is  drawn  in  rapidly,  but 
when  both  are  still  the  case  is  quite  different,  and  the  oil- 
ways  should  be  made  through  the  shaft  or  stud  instead  of 
through  the  hub.  This  applies  to  the  gearing  about 
planing  machines,  and  in  all  cases  where  gear  wheels  or 
pulleys  run  loose  on  a  fixed  axis.  In  ordering  new 
machines,  or  in  case  of  trouble  with  those  in  use,  have  the 
oil- ways  changed  to  this  plan,  which  is  the  only  way  to 
ensure  thorough  lubrication  and  prevent  trouble. 

While  discussing  mechanism  for  stopping,  starting,  and 
shifting  belts,  we  will  add  some  remarks  about  shifters. 

A  man  may  be  tastefully  dressed  throughout  in  a  suit  of 
the  best,  but  his  whole  appearance  is  spoiled  by  a  bad  hat. 
A  machine  may  be  properly  constructed,  in  good  propor- 
tion, and  set  up  in  the  best  manner,  and  still  present  a  bad 
appearance  from  the  effect  of  an  awkward  belt  shifter. 


THE    OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


65 


The  rods  and  fingers  or  studs  are  now  generally  furnished 
with  hangers  for  the  smaller  shafts ;  but  there  are  always 
more  or  less  of  them  to  be  made  of  wood;  the  custom 
seems  to  be  to  pick  up  any  pieces  found  lying  about 
the  floor  to  make  them  from,  without  reference  to  size 
or  proportion.  This  is  especially  true  of  wood  shops, 
where  there  is  every  facility  for  making  them  in  a  proper 
manner. 

Of  course  no  special  arrangement  or  dimensions  need 
be  followed  in  making  shifter  frames,  yet  there  are  propor- 
tions which  should  be  observed  within  reason. 

Fig.  30  shows' a  wooden  shifter  frame,  constructed  of  hard 
wood ;  the  pendants  2,  2  should  be  from  2£  to  2|  inches 

FIG.  30. 


square ;  the  shifter  rail  3,  |-  by  2£  inches ;  the  friction 
rail  4,  |  by  2  inches ;  and  the  lever  f  in.  thick  by  2^  inches 
wide  at  the  extreme,  tapering  to  1J  in.  wide  at  the  lower 
end,  and  to  1^  in.  wide  at  the  top  end.  Tho  rail  4  is  to 
connect  and  stiffen  the  pendants  2,  2,  and  to  hold  the 
shifter  when  it  is  set  over,  by  the  friction  against  the 


66  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

lever ;  this  can  be  regulated  by  a  piece  of  leather  between 
them,  or  by  Laving  the  rail  sprung  so  as  to  bear  against 
the  lever. 

The  eye  that  the  belt  runs  through  at  5  can  be  made 
of  round  iron  \  in.  or  f  in.  diameter,  flattened  at  the 
ends,  and  drilled  to  receive  two  wood  screws  in  each 
side. 

In  building  a  new  place,  or  when  machines  are  being 
added,  a  good  plan  is  to  prepare  a  number  of  pieces  for 
shifter  rails  and  pendants,  which  can  be  shaped  and 
mortised  ready  for  use  when  wanted,  and  cost  much  less 
than  if  improvised  each  time  they  are  needed. 

Idle  or  tension  pulleys,  or  more  properly  brake  pulleys, 
are  perhaps  the  best  means  of  stopping  and  starting 
machines  or  shafts  in  any  case  when  the  belts  are  in  a 
position  that  allows  their  use.  In  wood  shops  any  belt 
that  runs  at  an  angle  higher  than  45  degrees  can,  as  a 
rule,  be  operated  by  a  brake  pulley ;  which  is  not  only  a 
very  effectual  means  of  stopping  and  starting,  but  has 
the  important  advantage  of  regulating  the  tension  of  the 
belt  to  suit  the  character  of  the  work,  and  also  increases 
its  lap  and  tractile  power. 

Wood  shops  are  especially  instanced  because  a  belt  at 
any  other  than  a  very  high  angle  cannot  be  operated 
in  this  way  unless  the  surfaces  are  sufficiently  dry  and 
smooth  to  allow  them  to  slip  on  the  still  pulley.  As  the 
belts  of  a  wood  shop  are  usually  in  this  condition  because 
of  the  dust,  brake  pulleys  can  be  used  with  advantage  in 
a  great  many  cases,  particularly  on  the  larger  belts,  and 
when  the  driving  pulley  is  below.  This  latter  case  allows 
the  belt  to  stop  with  the  top  pulley  ;  but  if  the  angle  is  as 
high  as  60  degrees,  Figs.  31  and  32,  the  driving  pulley 
can  be  above,  and  the  belt  will  run  loosely  around  the 


THE   OPERATORS    HANDBOOK.  UY 

bottom  pulley  without  injury  if  it  is  not  too  heavy  and 
there  are  flanges  or  guides  to  keep  it  on  when  running 
loose.  In  Fig.  31,  1  is  the  driving  pulley,  2  the  brake 
pulley,  and  3  the  driven  pulley.  The  brake  pulley  must 
always  be  placed  on  the  slack  side  of  the  belt,  where  the 
bottom  pulley  is  the  driver,  or  as  in  Fig.  32,  where  the  top 
pulley  is  the  driving  one. 


FIG.  31 


FIG.  32. 


Besides  the  advantages  of  regulating  the  tension  and 
increasing  contact,  brake  pulleys  can  be  used  to  guide 
the  belt  by  changing  their  axes,  a  very  important  matter 
in  the  case  of  large  driving  belts ;  they  also  require  but 
one-half  the  room  and  width  needed  for  shifting  pulleys. 

Brake  pulleys  for  small  belts  should  be  made  as  in 
Fig.  33,  the  centre  laid  up  out  of  wood,  with  a  flange 
of  cast  iron  at  each  end,  fitted  on  the  spindle,  and  fastened 
to  the  wood  by  means  of  wood  screws.  The  shaft  can  be 
square  when  it  is  fitted  through  the  wood,  which  prevents 

F  2 


68 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


it  from  turning  in  the  pulley,  and  obviates  the  necessity 
of  keys  in  the  end  flanges;  as  there  is  no  end  thrust  on 

FIG.  33. 


the  shaft  it  can  have  point  bearings.  The  bearing  is 
arranged  for  antifriction  metal,  with  a  tallow  cup  on  the 
top,  which  is  the  only  lubrication  needed.  If  the  bearings 
have  to  be  oiled  in  the  usual  manner,  the  belt  is  sure 
to  become  greased  by  the  waste  oil  thrown  from  the 
flanges. 

By  letting  these  bearings  into  the  brake  frame,  Fig.  33, 
and  having  the  bolt  holes  slotted,  they  are  easily  moved 
for  adjustment;  and  if  keys  are  placed  on  each  side  of 
them,  they  can  be  set  to  change  the  axis  of  the  pulley  so 
as  to  guide  the  belt. 

Positive  clutches  are  not  fit  for  wood  machines,  there 
are  no  motions  that  need  be  so  positive  as  to  require  them ; 
besides,  if  made  as  they  should  be,  they  are  much  more 
expensive  than  either  shifting  belts  or  brake  pulleys. 

A  great  trouble  with  wood  machines  is  the  abrupt 
manner  in  which  they  are  started;  a  belt  to  drive  a 
planing  machine  8  inches  wide,  moving  at  2000  feet  a 
minute,  is  usually  shifted  at  once  to  the  fast  pulley, 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  69 

causing  a  shock  to  the  pulleys  and  shafting,  which  if 
it  were  not  for  the  slipping  of  the  belt  would  soon  destroy 
the  whole  arrangement. 

This  can  be  guarded  against  by  shifting  the  belts 
gradually,  but  cannot  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  those 
who  work  on  the  machines  unless  they  are  specially 
instructed,  and  even  then  will  generally  be  forgotten  or 
disregarded.  Many  machine  builders  in  England  arrange 
shifters  to  work  with  screws,  so  that  they  cannot  be  used 
abruptly,  a  plan  that  pays  well  for  the  trouble,  when 
there  are  shifting  pulleys  which  run  at  a  high  speed  and 
when  the  shifter  can  be  attached  directly  to  the  machine. 


ACCIDENTS  FROM  WOOD  MACHINES. 

A  machine  operator  who  has  not  carefully  studied  the 
many  sources  of  danger  and  accident  to  which  he  is  con- 
tinually exposed,  has  neglected  a  study,  the  neglect  of 
which  may  cost  him  a  limb  or  his  life  at  any  time.  There 
is  always  more  or  less  danger  from  sources  that  cannot 
be '  foreseen,  and  therefore  cannot  be  provided  against, 
without  running  risks  from  dangers  that  are  under- 
stood. 

Accidents  in  wood  shops  occur  generally  from  care- 
lessness, and  a  failure  to  correct  some  irregularity  or 
risk  that  was  well  known,  such  as  cuts  by  saws  or  other 
tools  in  motion — winding  belts,  bolts  or  cutters  flying 
off,  or  winding  the  clothing — none  of  which  seem  to  offer 
much  risk,  and  yet  are  dangerous  enough,  if  estimated 
from  the  number  of  accidents  from  these  causes.  It  is 
rare  to  find  a  man  who  has  been  engaged  for  any  length 
of  time  in  operating  wood-cutting  machines  who  has  not 


70  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

lost  fingers,  or  does  not  bear  scars  that  attest  the  danger 
of  his  calling. 

There  is  perhaps  less  real  risk  with  wood-cutting 
machinery  than  many  other  kinds,  if  people  were  equally 
careful  in  working  with  it.  One  is  not  apt  to  go  near  a 
train  of  wheels,  or  a  large  belt  that  is  in  motion,  with- 
out a  feeling  of  dread  ;  they  convey  a  sense  of  danger ; 
but  a  circular  saw  looks  harmless  when  running,  almost 
as  though  it  coulcJ  be  handled  without  injury,  and  unless 
a  high-speed  machine  makes  a  great  noise,  it  does  not  seem 
to  convey  any  sense  of  peril. 

With  one  exception,  circular  saws  are  perhaps  the  most 
dangerous  among  wood  tools.  The  hands  in  many  varieties 
of  work  must  of  necessity  be  exposed  to  injury,  and  nothing 
but  continual  attention  and  care  will  prevent  accidents. 
The  mind  must  be  kept  on  the  work,  and  never  for  a  single 
instant  wander  away  to  other  matters. 

The  writer,  during  a  long  experience  with  a  large 
number  of  sawyers  under  his  charge,  noticed  that  a  man 
who  was  absent-minded  was  sure  to  be  cut,  and  that  by 
carefully  observing  the  disposition  and  peculiarities  of  the 
workmen,  there  could  be  men  selected  for  the  saws  who 
ran  but  little  risk.  Whenever  a  man  was  detected  day 
dreaming,  or  engrossed  in  thought,  he  was  removed  from 
the  saws  and  given  a  job  with  less  risk ;  the  result  was, 
that  accidents  became  rare,  although  the  work  was  of  a 
dangerous  character,  consisting  mainly  of  what  is  termed 
blocking  and  cropping,  where  some  twelve  saws  were  at 
work. 

Accidents  in  sawing  are  generally  from  cuts  where  the 
hands  are  jerked  into  the  saw,  and  from  pieces  coming 
over  the  saw  from  behind.  In  the  first  case  the  accident 
generally  occurs  from  the  piece  suddenly  parting  in  the 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  71 

line  of  the  kerf,  either  through  a  split  or  a  hidden  cut  on 
the  under  side  that  allows  the  piece  to  spring  forward  so 
quickly  that  the  hands  cannot  be  checked,  or  by  the 
piece  unexpectedly  rolling  over  towards  the  saw  when 
the  cut  is  being  made  on  one  side.  These  are  cases  when 
a  careful  sawyer  may  be  cut;  but  there  are  a  hundred 
other  ways  in  which  accidents  may  occur,  even  by  people 
deliberately  placing  their  hands  upon  a  saw  without 
knowing  it  to  be  in  motion,  a  circumstance  which  has 
often  happened. 

In  block  sawing,  cutting  short  stuff,  the  .sawyer  should 
use  a  stick  for  pushing  the  pieces,  placing  his  left  hand  to 
keep  them  against  the  fence,  and  keeping  the  stick  in  his 
right  to  push  them  through.  A  little  practice  soon  makes 
this  a  convenient  plan,  and  one  that  would  be  generally 
followed  if  it  were  not  that  in  most  American  saw  benches 
we  have  not  only  to  push  the  stuff  through  but  at  the  same 
time  hold  it  down  to  keep  it  from  rising  behind  the  saw, 
a  matter  to  be  noticed  farther  on.  If  the  stuff  has  no 
tendency  to  rise  behind,  there  is  no  excuse  for  placing 
the  hands  near  enough  to  the  saw  to  be  in  danger,  no 
matter  what  the  character  of  the  work. 

In  sawing  from  the  side  of  a  piece  that  is  liable  to  roll 
over,  no  other  precaution  can  be  taken  except  close  atten- 
tion and  an  estimate  of  the  danger  beforehand.  The  best 
rule  is  to  be  ready  to  let  go  if  anything  happens,  and  it 
may  be  remarked  that  in  this  as  in  all  other  cases  where 
accidents  may  or  do  happen,  people  are  seldom  hurt  from 
a  cause  that  has  been  previously  considered  and  is  watched 
for.  Pieces  coming  over  the  sa^y  is  a  danger  that  is  more 
apparent,  gives  some  warning,  and  is  generally  dreaded 
and  watched  for  by  the  sawyer,  especially  if  he  has  seen 
or  experienced  such  accidents.  Many  who  have  worked 


72  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

about  saws  for  years  do  not  know  the  force  with  which  a 
piece  will  be  thrown  from  a  sharp  saw  that  has  hooked 
teeth. 

If  a  piece  of  stuff — say,  10  feet  long — is  taken  behind  a 
ripping  saw,  and  the  end  dropped  on  the  top,  so  that  its 
whole  length  will  pass  over  the  top,  it  will  attain  a  velocity 
equal  to  that  of  the  periphery  of  the  saw,  a  fact  that  is 
easily  proved  by  examining  the  marks  of  the  teeth  toward 
the  last  end,  the  pitch  of  which  will  equal  that  of  the  teeth 
on  the  saw.  An  accident  of  this  kind  will  sometimes 
happen  from  a  green  or  wet  piece  closing  on  the  saw  be- 
hind ;  but  it  is  quite  rare,  and  with  this  exception  there  is 
no  need  of  such  a  thing  ever  happening.  In  nineteen  cases 
out  of  twenty  the  fault  is  in  the  gauge  or  fence,  which 
for  some  unaccountable  reason  seems  in  America  to  be 
arranged  with  a  special  view  to  throwing  the  stuff  over  the 
saw;  and  considering  the  ingenuity  and  the  intelligence 
which  mark  shop  manipulation  in  other  matters,  there  is 
no  parallel  for  it. 

Fig.  34  shows  the  usual  plan  of  arranging  saw  gauges  in 
England  and  most  other  countries. 

FIG.  34. 


We  often  see  saw  benches  from  8  to  10  feet  long  with  a 
mandril  in  the  centre,  where  no  one  can  reach  the  saw 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  73 

from  the  end,  and  the  work  is  done  with  the  greatest  incon- 
venience; the  gauges  not  only  extend  past  the  saw,  but 
are  often  longer  behind  than  they  are  in  front,  an  arrange- 
ment that  is  never  heard  or  thought  of  in  any  other 
country. 

It  is  evident  that  if  a  gauge  extends  behind  the  saw  it 
cannot  be  set  parallel  to  the  plate,  but  must,  in  order  to 
free  the  stuff,  stand  at  an  angle  ;  and  as  the  constant  ten- 
dency is  to  keep  it  parallel,  the  result  is  that  the  pieces  are 
lifted  behind  and  thrown  over.  This  matter  will  be  further 
considered  under  its  proper  head,  and  is  alluded  to  here 
only  in  connection  with  the  danger  it  occasions. 

Many  fatal  accidents  occur  from  flying  pieces,  which, 
from  saws  of  average  diameter,  usually  strike  the  sawyer 
in  the  breast  or  about  the  waist,  often  causing  instant 
death — sometimes  scarcely  leaving  a  scar.  Three  fatal 
accidents  of  this  kind  happened  within  as  many  years  with 
men  personally  known  to  the  writer,  which  is  mentioned 
to  explain  the  emphatic  disapproval  of  long  saw  gauges. 
A  thick  plank  hinged  so  as  to  hang  directly  above  the 
saw,  heavy  enough  to  stop  any  piece  coming  over,  makes 
a  safeguard  against  such  accidents,  but  it  hides  the  rear  of 
the  saw  from  view,  and  is  not  needed  if  other  precautions 
are  attended  to. 

Circular  saws  were  mentioned  as  second  among  the  dan- 
gerous machines  of  a  wood  shop.  The  irregular  moulding 
or  shaping  machine  should  be  placed  first. 

Safety  shields  of  various  kinds  have  been  devised,  most 
of  which  protect  the  hands,  but  are  in  the  way,  and  can 
generally  be  found  hanging  on  the  wall  somewhere  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  machines.  No  safety  device  that  impedes 
or  increases  the  labour  will  ever  be  used  in  this  or  any 
other  case,  and  the  safest  plan  is  to  carefully  consider  how 


74  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

accidents  may  happen  and  what  precautions  will  hinder 
them  without  interfering  with  the  work. 

In  shaping,  the  danger  is  from  having  the  piece  snatched 
by  the  cutters,  either  by  a  splinter  raising  or  when  the 
angle  of  the  cutters  is  such  as  to  cause  them  to  catch,  both 
of  which  can  be  in  a  measure  guarded  against  by  having 
the  angle  of  the  edges  very  obtuse,  which  suits  the  nature 
of  the  work  besides  promoting  safety. 

A  great  share  of  the  work  performed  on  shaping 
machines,  especially  such  as  is  extensively  duplicated,  can 
be  moulded  on  formers  fitted  with  clamps  to  hold  the 
piece  as  in  Fig.  35.  This  arrangement  fully  protects  the 
hands,  besides  making  better  and  faster  work. 

FIG.  35. 


The  holder  shown  at  Fig.  35  is  adapted  to  milling  or 
shaping  chair-stuff,  hames,  billet  frames,  or  other  work, 
when  there  are  a  number  of  pieces  of  the  same  pattern  to 
be  moulded ;  5  is  the  pattern  and  main  frame  on  which  the 
clamping  jaws  are  mounted,  6  is  the  piece  to  be  moulded. 
The  jaws  1,  1  are  operated  by  the  tension  rod  3  and  the 
handle  2,  which  locks  the  jaws  when  thrown  down  in  the 
position  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  making  a  toggle-joint, 
which  is  the  only  safe  fastening  when  there  is  jar  and 
concussion.  The  amount  of  force  used  in  clamping  is 
regulated  by  the  swivel  screw  at  4,  which  can  also  to  a 
limited  degree  be  used  to  adjust  the  jaws  for  pieces  of 
varying  thickness. 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  75 

This  form  of  clamp  is  the  only  one  that  is  safe  to  use 
on  a  shaping  machine.  Screws,  spurs,  or  wedges — in  fact, 
anything  except  the  toggle-joint — may  give  way  at  any 
time,  and  lead  to  accident.  The  tension  rod  on  the  top 
equalizes  the  strain  on  the  bar  5,  which  would  be  bent  by 
any  clamping  device  that  acted  independently  at  each  end. 
There  is  also  the  advantage  of  clamping  both  ends  instantly 
at  the  same  time  and  with  equal  force. 

The  safety  of  operating  shaping  machines  depends  much 
upon  the  form  of  the  cutters ;  if  they  have  an  obtuse 
angle  and  stand  in  a  radial  position,  there  is  but  little  ten- 
dency to  snatch  the  piece,  and  the  cutting  will  be  effected 
as  easily  and  much  smoother  than  when  standing  in  an 
acute  position;  the  angle  of  cutters  will,  however,  be 
noticed  under  another  head. 

Accidents  often  occur  from  winding  belts,  and  are  always 
dangerous,  either  from  the  chances  of  being  drawn  in  by 
the  belt  or  from  pulling  down  the  shafting.  Three  cases 
out  of  every  four  are  caused  by  the  belts  becoming  fast 
between  pulleys  set  too  near  together,  an  easy  thing  to 
guard  against,  and  yet  a  most  common  fault. 

Pulleys  on  a  line  shaft,  that  are  separated  only  an  inch 
or  two,  are  danger  traps,  that  may  at  any  time  cost  a  life 
or  lead  to  destructive  accidents.  There  should  always  be 
a  space  between,  at  least  one-third  more  than  the  width  of 
the  belts,  and  as  much  wider  as  practicable.  Belts  running 
too  near  together  are  also  a  source  of  danger;  if  one  belt 
breaks  it  is  apt  to  be  overrun  by  the  other,  and  both  of 
them  wound  about  the  shaft;  and  as  the  supports  for 
shafting  are  often  not  strong  enough  to  part  the  belts, 
the  whole  is  likely  to  be  thrown  down  if  the  heavier  belts 
are  wound. 

There  is  always  danger  in  throwing  on  belts  when  the 


76  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

pulleys  are  in  motion.  It  would  be  of  little  use  arguing 
against  the  practice  when  it  will  have  no  influence  to 
prevent  it ;  what  is  better  will  be  to  give  such  instruction 
as  is  possible  to  lessen  danger. 

Do  not  attempt  to  throw  on  large  belts  until  practised 
with  small  belts,  at  low  speeds,  and  experiment  until 
these  can  be  thrown  on  without  failure  and  without  danger. 
There  is  nothing  about  a  shop  that  is  learned  so  blindly  as 
this;  no  one  can,  as  a  rule,  tell  how  to  put  on  a  belt, 
or  even  offer  a  suggestion,  except  it  be  to  keep  your 
hands  out,  or  to  get  on  the  right  side  of  the  pulley.  It  is 
learned  by  accident,  as  we  may  say ;  and  yet  there  is 
one  little  thing  which,  if  understood,  will  save  nearly  all 
the  experiment,  and  at  the  same  time  the  danger,  for  the 
danger  does  not  come  from  the  throwing  on  of  a  belt  so 
much  as  the  failure  in  doing  so.  Move  the  hand  as  fast  as 
the  pulley  goes ;  that  is  the  whole  art.  Watch  persons 
trying  to  throw  on  a  belt,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  only 
difference  between  the  skilled  and  the  unskilled  rests  in 
this  thing,  of  moving  the  hand  with  the  pulley.  The  one 
will  throw  it  on  instantly,  apparently  without  effort,  and 
without  a  thought  of  failure;  the  other  will  try  several 
times,  and  then,  from  desperation,  attempt  to  force  it 
on,  and  burn  the  hand  from  friction,  or  do  something 
worse  in  the  way  of  accident.  Now  the  difference,  if  noted, 
will  be  found  to  consist  in  the  fact,  that  in  the  successful 
attempts  the  hand  was  moved  as  fast  as  the  pulley,  and 
in  the  others  it  was  not.  There  are  of  course  other  con- 
ditions to  be  observed,  but  this  is  the  essential  one. 

If  the  belt  is  long  and  horizontal,  the  centre,  or  bight, 
as  the  sailors  call  it,  should  be  held  up,  and  the  slack 
should  be  mainly  on  the  taking-on  side ;  this  provides  in 
a  measure  for  overcoming  the  inertia  of  the  belt,  and  the 


THE    OPERATORS   HANDBOOK.  77 

machinery  to  be  started,  the  chief  difficulty  where  there 
is  much  speed. 

Large  belts,  unless  very  long,  should  never  be  thrown  on 
Avhile  the  pulleys  are  in  motion,  but  drawn  together  with 
clamps  and  joined.  If  they  have  to  be  thrown  on,  stop  the 
pulleys,  lash  the  belt  to  the  face  of  the  pulley,  and  turn 
by  hand  or  slowly  with  the  power  until  the  pulley  has  made 
a  half  turn,  and  the  belt  is  on,  when  the  lashing  can  be 
removed. 

Accidents  from  winding  the  clothing  are  of  great  fre- 
quency in  wood  shops,  but  unless  from  the  line  shafting,  are 
less  serious  than  in  other  places.  The  high  speed  is  a  safe- 
guard in  such  accidents,  as  the  body  cannot  be  drawn  in 
and  revolved  about  a  spindle  or  shaft  that  is  running  at  a 
high  speed ;  the  greater  danger  is  from  slow  shafts,  making 
from  one  to  three  hundred  revolutions  a  minute.  Set 
screws  are  generally  at  the  bottom  of  the  matter,  and 
boring  spindles  the  most  common  source  of  accidents. 

It  was  remarked  before  that  there  is  no  use  in  recom- 
mending a  thing  when  you  know  the  advice  will  not  be 
followed.  If  it  was  not  for  this,  we  should  feel  like  enter- 
ing a  general  protest  against  all  exposed  set  scre\vs.  Many 
of  our  best  machinists  avoid  them  wherever  they  can,  and 
in  some  shops  they  are  not  allowed  on  the  machines  about 
wrhich  the  men  work,  and  where  there  is  danger ;  but  this 
is  exceptional,  and  the  rule  in  wood  machinery  of  the 
present  time  is  to  find  them  not  only  in  chucks  to  hold 
bits,  but  even  in  collars  on  the  ends  of  shafts  to  keep 
the  loose  pulleys  on.  This  last  is  nothing  but  a  relic  of  old 
times,  an  unmechanical  and  most  dangerous  plan  of  keep- 
ing loose  work  on  a  shaft,  at  a  place  where  belts  are  to  be 
thrown  on  and  off  or  oiling  done.  A  nut  on  the  end.  of  the 
shaft  is  neater,  more  mechanical,  and  certainly  safer. 


78  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

Machine  operators  have  usually  under  their  charge 
unskilled  hands,  often  boys,  who  have  had  no  previous 
experience,  and  there  is  great  responsibility  resting  on 
them  in  this  matter  of  accidents ;  the  novice  is  at  their 
mercy,  uninstructed  and  uncautioned,  he  is  liable  to 
meet  with  accidents  that  will  cost  him  a  finger,  a  limb, 
or  his  life.  The  dangers  of  machinery  are  to  him  just 
like  secret  traps  set  for  his  destruction,  and  the  old  or 
master  operator  is  to  be  considered  his  guardian  to  take 
him  safely  through  by  warning  him  of  the  danger.  We 
feel  it  quite  unnecessary  to  appeal  to  the  sympathy  of 
the  operators  in  this  matter.  Such  accidents  as  we  have 
alluded  to  rarely  happen  from  any  cause  but  oversight 
and  want  of  caution  ;  and  wood  workmen,  as  a  class,  have 
but  little  of  that  foolish  jealousy  that  in  some  other  trades 
leaves  the  young  apprentice  to  learn  of  danger  as  he  best 
can. 

Operators  and  managers  in  any  place  where  the  work 
is  under  their  charge,  should  go  along  the  line  shafting 
and  look  for  projecting  screws,  keys,  or  bolt-heads,  see  that 
there  are  no  belt  traps  between  pulleys,  and  that  there  is 
free  access  to  oil  bearings  without  going  into  dangerous 
places.  If  such  things  are  found,  have  them  corrected ; 
if  proprietors  will  not  do  it,  quit  them,  and  seek  employ- 
ment with  those  of  more  humanity,  system,  and  good 
sense ;  the  change  will  be  an  advantage  in  the  end.  If 
exposed  set  screws  are  found  on  machines,  have  them 
countersunk,  or  if  on  the  ends  of  spindles  or  shafts,  have 
them  replaced  with  nuts.  Examine  saw  gauges  and  all 
machines  for  sources  of  danger,  caution  apprentices,  and 
explain  clearly  the  nature  of  possible  accidents,  and  but 
little  danger  need  be  apprehended.  Some  foremen  are 
continually  having  accidents  with  their  machinery,  and 


THE  OPEBATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 


others  rarely  ever  have;  the  difference  is  mainly  from 
things  that  have  been  pointed  out,  and  millowners  in 
placing  their  machinery  in  charge  of  anyone  should 
inquire  what  accidents  he  has  had,  just  as  much  as  how 
much  experience  he  has  had  in  his  business. 

Accidents  from  flying  cutters,  or  bolts  thrown  from 
cutter-heads  in  motion,  are  of  rare  occurrence.  To  one 
who  knows  nothing  of  the  thing  practically,  the  chances 
would  seem  equal,  for  cutters  to  fly  off  or  to  stay  on,  when 
their  weight,  work,  and  speed  are  taken  into  account. 
They  do  not  come  off  very  often,  however,  and  when  they 
do  there  are  rarely  any  accidents  from  them.  This  is  for 
two  reasons;  there  is  an  instinct  of  danger  from  cutters 
that  always  keeps  the  operator  on  his  guard ;  and  any- 
thing that  flies  from  a  revolving  cutter-head  always  goes 
precisely  in  the  plane  of  rotation,  which  it  is  easy  to  avoid, 
and  if  the  fact  is  realized,  the  operator  keeps  out  of  this 
plane  when  in  the  vicinity  of  high-speed  spindles.  As 
this  statement  comprehends  nearly  all  that  can  be  said  as 
a  caution,  we  will  next  notice  the  fastening  of  the  cutters, 
where  the  danger  generally  has  its  origin. 

Cutters  are  generally  held  by  screws  that  pass  through 
and  clamp  them  to  the  head  or  block.  These  screws  have 
two  purposes  to  serve ;  to  clamp  the  cutter  on  the  head 
so  firmly  that  the  friction  will  keep  it  from  sliding  end- 
wise ;  and  to  hold  it  against  the  centrifugal  strain  and 
the  strain  of  cutting,  which  is  tranverse  to  the  face 
of  the  cutter,  and  from  the  centre  of  the  head.  Now 
making  due  allowance  for  the  tenacity  of  good  bolts,  and 
the  strength  they  are  supposed  to  have  in  such  cases,  there 
is  a  point  of  straining  where  the  screw  is  ready  to  break, 
without  adding  the  further  strain  of  the  centrifugal  and  the 
cutting  forces,  and  the  great  danger  is  rather  in  over- 


80  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

straining  than  in  understraining  them.  The  inexperienced 
generally,  with  a  feeling  of  greater  security  in  having  the 
cutters  tight,  will  screw  them  down  as  firmly  as  they  can, 
and  as  the  amount  of  this  strain  is  usually  governed  by  the 
length  of  the  wrench,  it  is  easy  to  see  the  importance  of 
watching  the  matter  especially  with  moulding  machines, 
where  the  cutters  are  too  often  held  by  bolts,  not  only 
too  small,  but  of  low  grade  iron. 

Cutter-screws  and  bolts  should  be  made  of  the  very  best 
refined  iron,  not  from  Swedish,  Norwegian,  or  any  of  the 
fine  imported  iron  which  is  too  soft,  but  from  the  best 
rivet  rods.  It  is  not  amiss  to  keep  a  few  rods  of  this 
iron  of  ^  in.,  |-  in.,  and  f  in.  diameter,  which  can  be 
sent  out  to  have  cutter-bolts  made  from ;  it  will  ensure 
their  quality  and  add  but  a  trifle  to  their  cost.  Steel  is 
not  safe  for  such  bolts,  and  should  never  be  used ;  if  it  is 
perfectly  annealed  and  soft,  it  is  of  course  stronger  than 
iron,  but  there  can  never  be  any  assurance  of  this,  besides 
it  will  not  stand  blows  and  rough  usage  so  well  as  iron. 


EEPAIKS  OF  MACHINEEY. 

The  repairing  about  a  wood-manufacturing  establishment, 
including  the  renewal  of  cutters,  tools,  belts,  or  saws,  that 
are  regularly  worn  out,  and  the  breakages  from  accident, 
if  footed  up  at  the  end  of  each  year,  would  in  most  cases 
equal,  and  in  not  a  few  exceed,  the  clear  earnings.  To 
lose  a  contract  for  a  thousand  dollars'  worth  of  work  on 
which  there  is  a  probable  profit  of  ten  per  cent.,  is  to  lose 
the  chances  of  one  hundred  dollars  of  earnings,  but  to  lose 
by  accident  one  hundred  dollars  for  repairs  is  that  much 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  81 

money  taken  from  the  actual  earnings  already  made. 
Its  loss  is  a  matter  of  certainty,  and  if  we  could  only 
realize  on  all  occasions,  as  we  should,  that  one  dollar  of 
this  kind  of  expense  represents  ten  dollars'  worth  of  work 
done  in  the  shop,  the  repair  bills  would  be  materially 
reduced. 

It  was  remarked  at  the  beginning  that  an  operator  of 
wood  machinery  should  be  a  machinist.  Good  operators 
are  generally  able  to  do  ordinary  repairs,  and  prefer  doing 
them  without  sending  them  out  to  be  bungled  in  a  second- 
class  machine  shop. 

There  is  no  intention  here  of  suggesting  radical 
changes  in  existing  practice  and  customs  that  are  not 
wise  and  expedient,  but  it  is  confidently  recommended 
that  any  woodwork  shop  employing  fifty  or  more  men 
should  have  an  engine  lathe  and  a  portable  forge  for 
doing  their  own  repairs.  The  engineer  as  a  rule  has 
time  to  work  these  tools,  and  will  find  many  things  to 
do  on  them  in  the  course  of  a  "year,  that  would  otherwise 
either  remain  undone  or  have  to  be  sent  out,  and  appear 
in  a  long  bill  for  repairs. 

An  engine  lathe  suitable  for  general  purposes  in  a  wood 
shop  of  16"  to  20"  swing,  to  turn  6  to  8  feet  in  length, 
can  with  the  necessary  equipment  of  tools  be  procured  for 
from  450  dollars  to  600  dollars. 

The  tools  and  appliances  wanted  will  be  as  follows ; — 

Centre  and  following  rests,  furnished  with  lathe. 

One  12"  to  16"  independent  jaw  chuck. 

One  set  of  chuck  drills,  1"  to  1"  by  eighths,  to  2"  by  fourths. 

One  set  of  twist  drills,  |"  to  f "  by  TVths,  f "  to  li"  by  eighths. 

A  set  of  V  thread  taps  from  f"  by  y^ths  to  f ",  and  by  eighths  from 

f"  to  li",  with  wrenches  to  turn  them. 
Two  chucks  for  drills  fitted  to  the  lathe. 
Six  each,  4",  6",  and  8",  clamp  bolts,  f "  diameter. 
Lathe  dogs  from  |  to  2"  by  iths,  from  2"  to  4"  by  |  inch. 


82  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

Lathe  tools  as  follows ; — 

Four  diamond  tools,  right  and  left. 

Two  side  tools,  right  and  left. 

Four  square  tools,  1",  T3¥"'  ^",  and  •§"  wide. 

Two  V  tools  for  threads,  one  bent  and  one  straight. 

One  inside  thread  tool  3"  long. 

Three  boring  tools,  3",  5",  and  7"  long. 

One  round  nose  tool, 

making  in  all  17  pieces.  These  tools  should  be  ordered  with 
and  come  with  the  lathe,  so  that  they  will  fit  the  tool  post ; 
and  besides  have  the  advantage  of  being  properly  made  and 
tempered  by  the  lathe  manufacturer,  who  is  presumed  to 
understand  just  how  they  ought  to  be  after  their  purpose 
has  been  explained. 

A  portable  forge  from  30  to  36  inches  diameter,  with  a 
sufficient  outfit  of  tongs,  and  a  cast-iron  anvil,  will  cost 
from  60  to  80  dollars.  If  the  whole  machine  shop  in- 
vestment is  valued  at  750  dollars  including  the  shafting, 
the  interest  of  this  would  at  ten  per  cent,  a  year  be  75 
dollars,  as  an  investment,  a  sum  that  will  generally  be 
saved  in  making  countershafts,  pulleys,  or  other  fittings, 
to  say  nothing  of  repairing.  The  lathe  and  tools,  if  taken 
care  of,  will  be  worth  nearly  what  they  cost  at  any  time. 
We  will  next  consider  what  may  be  gained  by  this  auxiliary 
machine  shop  in  repairs,  and  doing  such  fitting  as  comes 
within  its  capacity. 

First — There  is  the  saving  in  cost,  notwithstanding  the 
argument  of  machinists  to  the  contrary.  The  labour, 
which  is  the  expensive  element  in  machine  fitting,  is  often 
performed  by  the  engineer,  or  some  one  else,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  other  duties. 

Second — The  work  is  done  when  it  is  needed,  or,  what 
is  better,  and  in  most  cases  practicable,  before  it  is  needed ; 
one  job  done  at  the  right  time  is  as  good  as  two  jobs  done 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  83 

at   the  wrong   time ;    this   may  be   among   "  Franklin's 
maxims ; "  if  not,  it  ought  to  be. 

Third — The  work  is  done  in  the  manner  required,  and 
this  is  the  main  point  of  all.  In  regular  machine  fitting 
there  are  drawings  to  work  from,  and  there  is  no  trouble  in 
conveying  to  the  workmen  a  knowledge  of  what  is  wanted ; 
besides,  the  work  is  of  a  regular  nature,  and  suggests  its 
requirements ;  but  the  repairs  of  a  wood-working  establish- 
ment are  very  different.  We  have  only  to  ask  a  machinist 
who  has  such  repairs  to  do,  to  learn  the  reputation  they 
have  as  a  branch  of  work. 

Fourth — The  time  otherwise  lost  running  after  the 
repairs  when  done  outside.  This  item  is  placed  last,  at 
the  risk  of  having  fault  found  with  the  arrangement, 
for  there  is  no  one  who  has  had  to  look  after  the  repairs 
of  a  wood-working  establishment,  especially  when  they  are 
at  a  distance,  who  would  not  name  this  item  first.  It 
is  unreasonable  to  expect  a  machinist  to  do  a  thing  at 
once,  or  even  at  a  definite  time,  when  he  has  no  oppor- 
tunity of  mailing  plans  in  advance ;  or  to  expect  him  to 
serve  several  at  the  same  time ;  and  it  often  costs  more 
trouble  and  time  to  attend  to  repairs  than  they  are  worth. 

A  wood  workman  generally,  from  the  nature  of  his 
business,  knows  something  about  metal  fitting  and  machine 
work ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  rare  that  a  machinist  knows 
anything  of  wood  cutting ;  hence,  without  drawings,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  convey  an  idea  of  what  is  wanted, 
except  by  immediately  directing  the  workman,  which  is 
generally  an  equal  and  more  distasteful  duty  than  doing 
the  work  oneself. 

With  an  outfit  for  repairing  such  as  has  been  described, 
a  wood-working  factory  may,  by  purchasing  castings  for 
hangers,  pulleys,  and  bearings,  when  wanted,  fit  all  shafts 

G  2 


84  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

except  the  main  line,  which,  for  reasons  already  given, 
should  be  bought  from  a  first-class  house  that  is  regularly 
in  the  business. 

Spindles,  and  shafts  of  all  kinds  that  go  on  wooden 
frames,  can  be  made ;  cutters,  when  of  solid  steel,  can  be 
cut  off  from  the  bar,  bevelled,  drilled,  slotted,  and  tempered. 
Pulleys  of  all  kinds  within  the  swing  of  the  lathe  can  be 
bored  and  turned.  In  short,  nearly  all  operations  that 
appear  in  the  expense  account  of  machine-shop  bills  will 
be  saved.  It  leads  also  to  a  kind  of  self-sustaining  spirit 
in  the  works,  and  this  to  a  community  of  interest,  that  is 
always  a  characteristic  of  successful  business. 

It  must  however  be  remembered  that  this  plan  of 
doing  their  own  machine  work  is  not  recommended  for 
small  shops ;  or,  rather,  it  is  not  recommended  as  a  paying 
investment,  unless  the  tools  can  be  kept  at  work  a  reason- 
able portion  of  the  time. 

A  separate  room,  where  the  wood-dust  cannot  get  in, 
is  needed  for  this  iron  work.  To  put  iron  tools  into  the 
same  room  with  wood  tools  is  to  make  a  failure  of  the 
experiment;  the  small  tools  are  mislaid,  the  whole  covered 
with  dust,  and  the  spirit  of  the  thing  lost.  A  room  need 
not  add  much  to  the  expense,  because  such  a  place  is 
needed,  whether  there  are  iron  tools  or  not,  and  the  little 
space  required  for  a  lathe  and  forge  does  not  much  increase 
its  size.  Grindstones,  saw  filing  vices,  oil,  and  stores,  can 
all  be  kept  in  the  machine  room,  and  in  most  cases  one  man 
can  repair,  file  saws,  grind  cutters,  and  give  out  stores  be- 
sides doing  such  new  machine  work  as  is  needed  and  the 
tools  will  perform. 

For  the  assistance  of  those  who  are  not  practically 
skilled  in  the  use  of  an  engine  lathe,  it  is  thought  best  to 
append  some  instructions  and  hints,  which  may  be  of  use. 


THE    OPERATOR  S    HANDBOOK. 


85 


FIG.  36. 


An  engine  lathe  will  perform  nearly  all  the  operations  of 
machine  fitting,  except  planing,  and  even  this  can  be  done 
to  some  extent  on  a  lathe  that  has 
a  strong  screw  and  gearing.  For 
drilling,  have  a  stem  pad,  like 
Fig.  36,  to  go  into  the  poppet 
spindle,  and  a  number  of  wood 
blocks,  of  different  dimensions,  to 
build  up  under  the  work  when 

drilling.  Keep  these  blocks  at  hand,  and  do  not  have  to 
go  into  the  shop  to  search  for  new  ones  each  time  they 
are  wanted. 

When  two  or  more  holes  have  to  be  drilled  exactly 
parallel,  take  out  the  tool  post,  and  bolt  the  piece  to  the 
tool  block,  as  in  Fig.  37  ;  it  can  then  be  moved  across 
the  lathe  by  the  tool  screw  to  bore  any  number  of  holes 


FIG.  37. 


c 


in  a  true  line,  or  the  piece  can  be  turned  on  the  bolt  to 
bring  different  points  to  the  drill.  Do  not  use  the  turning 
feed  in  drilling,  but  move  the  carriage  by  means  of  the 
tail  screw. 

If  a  key  way  is  to  be  cut  in  a  pulley  or  wheel,  first  bore 
it,  and  then  lock  the  lathe  with  the  back  gearing ;  put  a 
thin  slotting  tool  in  the  post,  and  by  operating  the  slide  by 
hand  it  can  be  planed  out  perfectly  true,  and  in  less  time 
than  it  could  be  chipped.  The  tools  for  this  purpose  should 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 

be  narrow,  not  over  an  eighth  of  an  inch  wide,  and  the 
work  done  at  several  operations,  Fig.  38.  If  the  key  is 
FIG.  38.  w*de  the  pieces  between  can  be  cut  out  with 
a  chisel  at  a  few  blows,  or  cut  out  on  the 
lathe  by  using  a  stiffer  tool.  To  cut  key 
ways  in  shafting,  drill  a  hole  at  the  end 
where  the  key  way  stops,  mount  the  shaft 
between  the  centres,  lock  the  lathe,  dog  the 
piece  to  keep  it  from  turning,  and  proceed  by  hand  move- 
ment, as  in  the  other  case,  using  a  narrow  stiff  tool. 
Never  use  the  turning  or  screw-feed  in  any  of  these  opera- 
tions, or  it  may  be  found  necessary  to  go  out  for  repairs, 
notwithstanding  your  own  machine  shop. 

In  making  steel  spindles,  do  not  try  to  anneal  them ;  cut 
them  off  in  the  lathe  by  removing  the  tail  stock  if  the  bar 
is  too  long,  catching  the  end  in  the  chuck  and  running  it  in 
the  centre  rest,  which  is  a  better  plan  than  to  heat  it,  and 
will,  if  we  count  the  squaring  up  of  the  ends,  be  less  work 
than  to  do  it  at  the  forge,  which  requires  two  men  instead 
of  one.  The  same  rule  applies  to  shafting  generally,  a  bar 
of  any  length  can  be  put  in  a  lathe  in  this  manner  and  cut 
into  pieces  as  long  as  the  same  lathe  will  turn.  Have  a 
breast  drill  for  the  purpose,  and  drill  all  the  centres ;  never 
depend  upon  a  punched  centre  for  work  of  any  kind.  The 
breast  drill  will  be  found  handy  for  many  other  purposes, 
such  as  drilling  oil  holes  about  machines  without  taking 
the  work  down,  and  for  small  holes  generally. 

Bolts  and  screws  are  now  articles  of  merchandise,  like 
nails,  and  can  be  bought  of  any  diameter  or  length  from 
several  firms  who  make  a  specialty  of  their  manufacture ; 
odd  screws  can  be  made  in  the  lathe.  Left-hand  nuts  for 
saw  mandrils,  and  cases  where  but  a  special  nut  is  used, 
can  be  chased  on  the  lathe. 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  87 

Tempering  tools  that  are  not  liable  to  spring  is  easily 
learned,  and  as  the  wood  workman  has  the  advantage 
of  experimenting  with  the  edges  which  he  hardens,  the 
chances  are  that  with  a  little  practice  he  can  do  it  better 
than  a  smith.  Tempering  should  be  learned  by  everyone 
who  uses  tools,  no  matter  of  what  kind.  As  a  process  it  has 
but  little  more  to  do  with  forging  than  with  any  other 
branch  of  work,  and  is  a  question  of  judgment  rather  than 
skill.  Slow  regular  heating,  both  before  hardening  and  in 
drawing  or  tempering,  is  the  main  thing  to  ensure  success. 
As  to  the  proper  shades  and  degrees  of  temper,  they  must 
be  seen  to  be  understood.  If  a  piece  of  steel  is  hardened 
and  then  polished  and  reheated  on  a  piece  of  hot  iron, 
these  shades  of  colour  can  be  learned  in  one  or  two  experi- 
ments. The  first  shade,  pale -straw  colour,  is  right  for 
nearly  all  wood  tools. 


MOULDING  BEARINGS. 

Another  kind  of  repair  about  our  American  woodwork 
shops  is  moulding  bearings  of  alloy — making  Babbitt  metal 
bearings  as  it  is  generally  termed,  though  for  what  reason 
it  would  be  hard  to  say.  The  patent  of  Babbitt  related  to 
a  mode  of  constructing  bearings,  and  not  to  an  alloy  from 
which  they  were  formed.  We  have  to  use  some  general 
name  for  the  bearings  and  metal,  however,  and  Babbitt  is 
perhaps  as  good  as  any  other ;  but  when  we  make  a  verb 
of  it,  and  to  speak  of  Babbiting  bearings,  the  matter  has 
gone  too  far,  and  it  is  better  certainly  to  call  it  moulding 
them. 

Moulding  bearings  is  one  of  the  regular  repair  jobs 
about  wood  shops  in  America;  and  while  almost  anyone 


88  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

can  run  a  bearing  of  some  kind,  it  requires  both  experience 
and  judgment  to  do  it  correctly ;  that  is  to  say,  that 
the  shaft  shall  not  be  sprung  by  the  heat  on  one  side, 
and  that  the  bearing  will  be  of  the  proper  diameter  when 
moulded,  with  the  metal  solid  and  smooth.  To  this  we 
may  add,  pouring  without  spilling  the  metal,  burning  the 
hands,  or  having  what  is  too  well  understood  as  a  blow- 
up. In  fitting  new  machines  that  have  moulded  bearings, 
the  metal  should  always  be  poured  on  mandrils  prepared 
for  the  purpose,  and  not  on  the  shafts  themselves ;  but  in 
re-moulding  them  for  a  wood  shop  it  is  impossible  to  have 
templates  for  this  purpose,  because  of  the  various  diameters 
and  lengths  of  the  spindles,  and  the  bearings  have  to  be 
moulded  on  the  shafts  that  are  to  run  in  them.  This 
operation  requires  the  greatest  care  to  prevent  springing 
the  spindles,  which  will  sometimes  happen,  no  matter  what 
precautions  may  be  taken  to  prevent  it.  With  short  bear- 
ings, or  those  that  run  at  a  speed  of  less  than  1 000  revolu- 
tions a  minute,  there  is  little  difficulty ;  but  in  the  case 
of  saw  mandrils,  planing  and  moulding  spindles,  shaping 
spindles,  and  so  on,  the  bearings  will  sometimes  heat  in 
the  most  mysterious  manner  after  being  recast,  and  just 
when  they  are  expected  to  perform  well. 

Whenever  it  is  practicable,  both  sides  of  the  bearings 
should  be  poured  or  moulded  at  one  time,  and  not  at  two 
operations,  as  is  commonly  the  case ;  it  requires  no  more 
risk  or  trouble,  and  is  sooner  done,  with  much  less  risk  of 
springing  the  shaft.  To  mould  them  in  this  manner  the 
shaft  or  spindle  should  be  first  levelled  up  and  set  square 
or  parallel  with  the  planed  surfaces  on  the  frame  or  top  of 
the  machine  by  placing  pieces  of  brass  or  wood  beneath 
it,  the  packing  then  fitted,  as  shown  in  Fig.  39,  with  open- 
ings to  allow  the  melted  metal  to  run  from  the  top  to  the 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


89 


bottom,  also  some  vent  holes  towards  the  ends  to  allow 
the  gas  and  air  to  escape.  This  packing  can  be  of  paste- 
board, wood,  or  of  several  FIG  g9 
layers  of  paper,  to  be 
removed  for  adjustment ; 
soft  pine  is  perhaps  the 
best  kind  of  packing,  and 
is  always  at  hand.  After 
the  packing  is  fitted  the 
cap  can  be  screwed  down 
firmly  and  the  ends  luted 
with  clay,  if  there  are 
apertures  large  enough  for  the  metal  to  escape.  If  the 
weather  is  cold,  or  in  any  case,  it  is  best  to  heat  the  cap 
before  putting  it  on ;  it  will  soon  communicate  its  heat  to 
the  rest  of  the  bearing  and  the  shaft,  which  should  be 
turned  round  so  as  to  be  warmed  evenly. 

In  luting  the  ends  with  clay,  do  not  paste  them  air-tight ; 
it  is  a  mistake  that  often  leads  to  a  failure.  Carry  the  clay 
up  to  the  top  of  the  cap,  leaving  a  free  opening  or  gate 
for  the  gas  to  escape.  Bearings  that  are  to  be  remoulded 
will,  unless  burnt  out,  always  contain  grease  enough  to 
create  a  quantity  of  gas  when  the  hot  metal  is  poured  in, 
and  unless  it  has  free  means  of  escaping,  the  bearing  will 
be  blown,  and  imperfectly  filled. 

After  the  bearing  has  been  moulded  the  gates  can  be 
broken  off  and  the  cap  loosened  by  driving  it  endwise,  or 
by  wedging  it  up  with  a  chisel :  the  harder  kinds  of  metal 
are  easily  separated  in  this  manner,  and  the  softer  should 
not  be  used  for  high  speeds. 

In  melting  the  metal,  be  careful  not  to  overheat  it,  and 
to  have  it  at  the  proper  temperature  when  poured.  If  it  is 
too  hot  the  shrinkage  is  in  proportion,  and  as  this  is  the 


90  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

great  trouble  about  moulding  such  bearings,  the  metal 
should  be  poured  at  as  low  a  heat  as  it  will  run  freely.  A 
good  plan  is  to  thrust  a  pine  stick  into  the  metal  after  it 
melts,  and  as  soon  as  it  will  burn  the  stick  or  cause  it  to 
smoke,  it  is  hot  enough,  in  fact,  hotter  than  it  need  be,  and 
should,  when  there  are  free  gates  to  pour  through,  be 
allowed  to  stand  to  cool  for  a  time  after  this  test.  Pour 
quickly  and  carefully,  but  without  hurrying,  and  be  sure 
that  there  is  not  something  forgotten  that  may  interrupt. 

After  the  bearing  has  been  poured  and  trimmed,  the 
next  thing  is  to  fit  it.  We  are  well  aware  that  this  propo- 
sition will  be  a  new  one  to  most  wood-machine  operators,  for 
bearings  are  generally  moulded  and  then  started  without 
fitting;  yet  there  is  no  risk  in  asserting  that  without 
fitting  three  out  of  every  four  will  heat  at  the  beginning. 

It  is  evident  that  if  the  metal  shrinks,  as  it  must  do,  the 
bearing  will  be  too  small,  unless  the  metal  is  so  firmly 
fastened  in  the  box  as  to  prevent  it  from  closing  on  the 
shaft.  Even  if  it  did  not  shrink,  the  bearing  would  be  too 
close  a  fit  to  run  cool,  so  that  it  must  of  necessity  be  fitted. 
To  do  this  use  a  round-ended  scraper,  made  by  grinding  a 
half-round  file  into  shape,  or  by  a  scraper,  specially  pre- 
pared. A  half-round  file  with  its  edges  ground  sharp  is 
as  good  for  the  purpose  as  any  tool  that  can  be  made ; 
those  not  accustomed  to  scraping  can  do  better  by  using 
the  sides  instead  of  the  end.  First  scrape  the  sides  of  the 
bearing,  which  are  always  too  close ;  then  put  the  mandril 
in  its  place,  and  by  turning  it  round  it  will  mark  the  spots 
where  it  touches,  which  can  be  scraped  off  until  it  has  a 
full  bearing  throughout.  The  cap  can  then  be  fitted  in 
the  same  manner,  and  unless  the  shaft  is  sprung  or  other- 
wise imperfect  there  will  be  no  heating. 

No  bearing  about  wood  machines  that  runs  at  a  high 
speed,  whether  it  be  brass,  composition,  or  iron,  can  run 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  91 

well  without  being  fitted  by  scraping.  It  would  seem  that 
when  they  are  moulded  directly  on  the  shaft  it  would  en- 
sure a  fit,  but  a  little  observation  and  a  practical  experi- 
ment will  prove  the  contrary. 

Bearings  that  do  not  run  at  high  speed,  for  countershafts 
or  line  shafting,  can  be  made  by  winding  a  layer  of  paper 
about  the  shaft  before  casting  them ;  it  not  only  provides 
for  the  shrinkage  and  brings  the  size  right,  but  being  a 
good  non-conductor  of  heat,  it  prevents  the  metal  from 
being  chilled  on  the  shaft,  and  will  always  ensure  a  sound 
smooth  surface.  A  sheet  of  writing  paper  can  be  wound 
around  the  shaft  and  tied  with  a  string  outside  the  bear- 
ing, or  a  long  strip  of  paper  that  is  cut  parallel  and  straight 
can  be  wound  spirally  on  the  bearing  and  held  by  the  lips 
at  the  ends  or  tied  with  a  cord  as  before.  There  is  no  fear 
of  having  the  bearings  too  large  by  this  plan ;  it  is  the 
opposite  fault  that  is  to  be  guarded  against.  The  fit  will 
not  be  so  good  as  one  that  is  scraped,  but  will  do  very  well, 
except  for  high  speeds. 

As  to  the  material  for  moulded  bearings,  there  is  no  plan 
so  good  as  to  send  to  a  responsible  house  which  prepares 
these  alloys  and  purchase  the  metal,  explaining  its  purpose 
and  leaving  its  composition  to  the  manufacturer. 

In  attempting  to  mix  the  metal  there  is  generally  more 
lost  by  oxidation  and  other  waste  than  the  profit  of  the 
regular  smelter  amounts  to ;  besides,  the  composition  is 
rarely  right,  and  seldom  well  mixed. 

For  slow  bearings,  pure  zinc  or  worn-out  printer's  type 
does  well,  but  with  all  that  run  at  high  speeds  the  best 
metal  is  none  too  good. 

We  may  add  on  the  general  subject  of  the  material  for 
bearings  in  wood  machines,  in  which  every  wood  manufac- 
turer is  interested,  that  moulded  bearings  made  from 
alloys  are  only  to  be  considered  as  an  expedient  for  cheap 


92  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

fitting,  good  enough  in  many  places  where  there  is  no 
considerable  pressure,  but  if  there  was  wanting  any  proof 
to  show  that  they  are  not  best  for  wood  machines,  it  would 
be  found  in  the  fact  that  they  have  to  be  continually 
renewed.  The  dust  from  wood  machines  which  cannot 
be  avoided  gets  into  the  bearings  and  clings  with  great 
tenacity  to  the  soft  metal,  and  the  spindles  are  continually 
going  out  of  line  from  the  wear  that  must  of  necessity  take 
place.  Brass  bearings  about  6  parts  copper  to  1  of  tin, 
or  harder,  are  the  best  for  high-speed  spindles,  and  if 
properly  fitted  and  taken  care  of,  will  last  as  long  as  the 
machine  itself.  After  the  most  careful  experiments  with 
moulded  bearings  by  some  of  the  European  builders  of 
wood  machines,  they  were  discarded  for  brass  bearings. 

These  opinions  on  moulded  bearings  are  given  with  a 
full  knowledge  of  their  extended  use  in  many  branches 
of  machine  manufacture,  and  the  good  results  obtained  in 
locomotive  building  and  in  marine  engine  work,  but  the 
conditions  of  high-speed  wood  machines  require  some- 
thing else,  unless  operated  by  the  highest  skill  and  by 
those  who  understand  how  to  renew  them  in  a  proper 
manner.  We  have  moulded  bearings,  however,  on  nearly 
all  wood  machines,  and  shall  no  doubt  always  have  them 
for  the  cheaper  class  of  machines,  so  that  whether  right  or 
wrong,  they  must  be  taken  care  of. 


LUBRICATING  WOOD  MACHINERY. 

Considering  the  quantity  of  oil  that  is  used  in  wood- 
working establishments,  its  cost,  and  the  great  difference 
between  its  careless  and  its  economical  use  makes  it  a 
subject  worth  marked  attention.  There  can  only  be  a 
certain  quantity  of  oil  utilized,  no  matter  how  much  is 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  93 

poured  on  or  wasted,  and  there  is  little  risk  in  the  assertion, 
that  where  a  pint  is  needed,  four  pints  are  wasted.  This 
waste  leads  to  the  use  of  cheap  oil  to  reduce  the  expense, 
and  the  general  result  is  that  if  the  cheap  oil  used  care- 
lessly was  represented  in  good  oil  used  carefully,  it  would 
be  equal  to  the  difference  between  sperm  oil  of  the  finest 
grade,  compared  with  the  poorest  paraffine  oils. 

Lubricating  is,  with  most  kinds  of  machinery,  a  question 
of  economy,  rather  than  of  efficiency.  At  slow  speeds, 
except  when  there  is  great  pressure,  almost  any  kind  of 
oil  will  do  for  lubrication ;  but  in  the  case  of  high  speed, 
as  in  wood-cutting  machines,  the  very  practicability  of 
their  operation  depends  upon  efficient  lubrication. 

It  is  not  proposed  to  consider  the  character  of  lubricants 
here :  they  are  all  grease,  or  ought  to  be,  and  their  lubri- 
cating power,  or  endurance,  is  directly  as  the  amount  of 
grease  they  contain,  and  as  the  amount  of  other  matter 
they  do  not  contain.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that,  among 
the  many  exhaustive  researches  that  have  been  made  in 
scientific  matters,  but  little,  if  anything,  has  been  done 
to  explain  and  fix  standards  for  lubricating  oils.  Every 
manufacturer  is  annoyed  by  the  persistent  visits  of  the 
agents  of  paraffine  oil  dealers,  who  have  some  Latin, 
Greek,  or  Choctaw  name  for  their  compounds,  which  are 
represented  as  having  some  peculiar  power  of  lubricating 
from  their  chemical  nature.  The  fact  is,  in  plain  terms, 
that  their  worth  is  as  the  amount  of  grease  they  contain ; 
and  as  the  market  value  of  grease  is  nearly  always 
constant,  the  different  grades  of  oil  can  be  considered  as 
representing  it  in  various  states  of  dilution. 

Next  to  the  quality  of  the  oil  the  most  important  matter 
is  how  to  apply  it  economically  to  the  bearings. 

Constant  lubricating  can  be  considered  as  divided  into 


94  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

the  two  general  plans ;  —  circulating  the  oil  in  bearings, 
using  it  over  and  over  again,  and  feeding  it  to  the  bearing 
as  it  is  worn  out  or  used  up  and  then  allowing  it  to  run 
off.  The  first  plan  includes  what  are  generally  termed 
self-oiling  bearings,  constructed  with  cells  or  oil-chambers, 
beneath  the  shaft  from  which  the  oil  is  fed  up  with  wicks,  or 
in  some  cases  through  small  holes,  by  capillary  attraction, 
and  after  circulating  through  the  bearing  runs  off  into 
the  oil-cell  to  be  again  fed  up,  until  it  is  worn  out.  We 
have  just  passed  through  a  mania  for  self-oiling  bearings, 
which  have  been  applied  on  all  parts  of  wood  machines, 
and  we  are  now  settling  down  to  a  more  common-sense 
view  of  the  matter,  by  looking  for  the  best  means  of  sup- 
plying oil  to  the  bearings  as  it  is  required,  or  as  it  is  worn 
out.  To  pour  it  on  a  bearing  at  intervals  from  a  can,  is 
simply  to  waste  three-fourths  of  all  that  is  used,  even  if 
done  with  ordinary  care,  and  this  plan  is  not  to  be  con- 
sidered except  in  cases  where  no  other  can  be  applied ;  so 
that  the  choice  rests  between  circulating  oil-cells,  and  the 
oil -feeders  placed  on  the  top  of  the  bearing. 

The  difference  between  the  two  plans  may  be  stated  as 
follows ; — with  oil-cells  the  oil  is  circulated,  or  used  over 
repeatedly ;  the  cells  and  the  wicks  are  generally  inac- 
cessible and  out  of  sight ;  the  arrangement  cannot  be 
applied  to  bearings  at  pleasure,  but  must  be  specially 
constructed  when  they  are  made;  and  more  important 
than  all,  the  workmen,  as  a  rule,  have  but  little  confidence 
in  a  thing  they  cannot  see,  and  oil  bearings  as  often  with 
their  cans  as  though  there  were  no  oil-cells. 

With  the  glass  oil-feeders  that  are  now  used,  the  oil  is 
fed  to  the  bearing  as  it  is  needed ;  the  supply  of  oil  can  at 
all  times  be  seen;  the  feeders  can  be  applied  to  almost 
any  bearing,  no  matter  what  its  construction. 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  95 

There  is,  however,  this  objection  to  the  last  plan,  that 
the  oil  will  be  fed  and  wasted  when  the  machine,  or  bear- 
ing, is  not  running — a  difficulty  that  we  are  not  likely  to 
get  over  without  adding  complication. 

This  waste  is,  however,  more  than  compensated  in  the 
fact  that  the  workmen  have  confidence  in  these  feeders, 
and  will  take  care  of  and  rely  upon  them  to  oil  the  bear- 
ings, which  is  not  the  case  with  the  concealed  oil-cells. 
One  of  the  most  prominent  of  engineering  firms  has  by 
careful  experiments  determined  that  a  given  quantity  of 
oil  will  last  a  longer  time  and  give  a  better  result,  if  fed 
to  the  bearing  from  the  top  and  when  worn  out  allowed 
to  run  off;  and  considering  the  facility  with  which  these 
oilers  can  be  applied  with  the  certainty  of  their  action,  we 
have  no  fear  in  recommending  them  for  wood  machines. 

The  wicks  should  be  of  wire  wound  round  with  textile 
material,  ordinary  wicking  for  instance,  which  can,  by 
closing  it  together  or  stretching  it  on  the  wire,  be  made 
to  feed  more  or  less  as  required. 

All  the  bearings  of  wood  machines  that  run  at  a  high 
speed  should  have  tallow-cups,  no  matter  what  other 
means  are  used  to  lubricate  them  ;  they  cost  nothing, 
and  are  equivalent  to  placing  a  sentinel,  or  safeguard, 
over  the  bearing  to  protect  it  from  accident  in  case  the 
ordinary  means  of  oiling  should  fail. 

FIG.  40. 


Fig.  40  shows  a  common  box-cap  with  a  tallow-cup  as 
they  should  be  arranged  whenever  there  is  room  above 


96  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

the  bearing.  The  oiling  is  effected  through  the  centre  hole 
in  the  boss,  while  the  cavity  around  it  is  to  be  packed  with 
tallow.  If  the  bearing  heats,  the  tallow  is  melted,  and 
runs  through  the  holes  seen  at  each  end.  These  holes 
should  be  as  large  as  the  size  of  the  shaft  will  admit,  so 
that  the  tallow  can  remain  at  all  times  in  contact  with  the 
shaft. 

Tallow  alone  is  too  hard,  it  requires  too  much  heat  to 
melt  it,  except  in  warm  weather,  and  should  be  mixed 

with  lard,  when  necessary,  to  give 
FlG-  41-  the  proper  consistency. 

For  bearings  that  run  at  the 
highest  speed  a  good  plan  is  to 
cut  a  narrow  groove  along  the  top 
and  bottom,  as  seen  in  Fig.  41, 
which,  if  filled  with  felt,  or  soft 
wood,  retains  and  distributes  the 

oil  over  the  surface,  and  forms  a  lodging  place  for  dust  or 
grit  that  may  get  into  the  bearing. 


THE  CAKE  OF  BEARINGS. 

The  care  of  bearings  can  hardly  be  considered  as  be- 
longing to  repairing  machinery,  and  it  is  thought  best  to 
notice  it  as  a  separate  matter. 

To  take  care  of  the  bearings  of  a  high-speed  wood 
machine,  is  one  of  the  most  intricate  and  difficult  things 
which  the  operator  has  to  do,  and  even  after  years  of  ex- 
perience he  can  seldom  tell  at  once,  or  with  any  cer- 
tainty, the  cause  of  a  bearing  heating. 

When  a  bearing  becomes  hot,  a  machine  stops ;  if  on 
the  engine  or  line  shafts,  all  the  machines  stop;  so  that 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  97 

it  is  an  important  matter  to  know  how  to  treat  it.  To 
remove  the  cause  is  of  course  the  best  plan,  and  the  first 
thing  to  be  done ;  but  the  cause  is  sometimes  not  so  easy 
to  determine.  Aside  from  becoming  dry  for  the  want  of 
lubrication,  the  cause  of  heating  may  be  want  of  truth  in 
the  shaft,  either  from  not  being  round  or  from  being 
sprung.  It  may  be  for  the  want  of  a  fit,  and  lack  of 
surface,  from  being  too  tight,  or  from  over-pressure — that 
is,  too  much  pressure  for  the  amount  of  surface. 

Among  all  these  the  question  is  first  to  tell  with  which 
the  trouble  lies ;  and  next,  how  to  apply  a  remedy  in  the 
soonest  and  surest  manner.  When  a  bearing  heats,  if  the 
shaft  is  small,  and  can  be  freed  from  gearing  and  belts, 
first  try  to  shake  it  with  a  lever,  or  otherwise,  to  see  if  it  is 
loose  enough ;  if  so,  next  screw  down  the  cap  until  it  binds 
a  little,  and  then  turn  the  shaft  by  hand,  watching  carefully 
whether  it  binds  at  one  place  more  than  another ;  the  least 
irregularity  can  be  discerned  in  this  way,  and  indicates  that 
the  bearing  is  not  round,  and  needs  turning.  If  the 
shaft  is  crooked,  it  is  detected  by  holding  a  point  against 
it  while  running — a  matter  that  anyone  understands. 

If  none  of  these  things  appear,  next  take  the  shaft  out 
and  examine  the  bearing ;  see  where  the  shaft  bears, 
whether  at  one  end  only,  or  on  a  line  through  the  bottom, 
or  on  the  sides.  Examine  the  cap  to  see  whether  it  shifts, 
so  as  to  bind  on  the  sides.  This  want  of  surface  is  the 
most  common  cause  of  heating  with  the  bearings  of  new 
machinery,  and,  perhaps,  the  most  common  in  bearings 
that  have  been  remoulded ;  if  out  of  truth,  scrape  off  the 
points  where  the  shaft  bears  until  it  touches  throughout, 
as  explained  previously.  Use  good  oil  in  starting,  and  if 
necessary  cool  the  bearing  for  a  time  with  water. 

Never  place  any  faith  in  compounds  of  plumbago,  salt, 


98  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

soap,  or  anything  of  the  kind ;  they  may  have  claims  as 
lubricants,  but  it  is  generally  a  waste  of  time,  to  try  to 
conquer  a  hot  bearing  by  any  other  plan  than  to  correct 
the  mechanical  defect,  which  lies  at  the  bottom. 


THE  PEINCIPLES  OF  WOOD  CUTTING. 

It  was  intended  to  confine  this  treatise  as  much  as 
possible  to  practical  shop  matters,  and  not  to  include  the 
principles  of  machine  construction  or  of  machine  action ; 
but  it  is  evident  that  a  mechanic  qualified  to  take  care 
of,  to  set,  arrange,  and  adjust,  or  to  devise  ways  and 
means  of  working  with  cutters,  should  proceed  upon 
general  principles  and  understand  the  theory  of  their 
action.  Therefore  the  following  brief  article  on  the 
subject,  from  the  writer's  *  Treatise  on  the  Construction 
and  Operation  of  Wood-cutting  Machines/  may  be  read 
with  advantage. 

"  Cutting  wood  consists  of  two  distinct  operations ;  cross 
cutting  the  fibre,  and  splitting  it  off  parallel  to  its  lamina- 
tion or  grain. 

"  The  two  operations  are  in  all  cases  combined ;  for  to 
remove  the  wood  both  must  be  performed,  and  to  go  in- 
telligently about  the  construction  of  machines  and  cutters, 
this  principle  must  never  be  lost  sight  of.  The  greatest 
amount  of  power  and  the  best  edges  are  required  to  cross 
cut  the  fibre.  To  illustrate  by  a  familiar  example; — To 
cross  cut  a  block  12  inches  square  requires  a  considerable 
amount  of  effort  and  time,  but  a  single  blow  will  serve  to 
split  it  in  two,  parallel  to  the  fibre. 

"This  principle  exists  throughout  the  whole  range  of 
wood  cutting  with  the  same  general  conditions  in  all  cases ; 


THE    OPERATOR  S   HANDBOOK.  lly 

a  boring  auger  furnishes  another  example,  different  from 
the  one  given  as  an  operation,  but  the  same  in  principle. 

"In  boring,  the  main  power  is  needed  to  cross  cut  the 
fibre  with  the  '  spurs '  or  i  jaws  '  while  the  wood  is  split  off 
and  raised  from  the  bottom  of  the  hole  without  much 
effort ;  the  spurs  require  frequent  sharping,  must  have 
thin  edges,  and  are  soon  worn  away ;  while  the  opposite  is 
true  of  the  radial  or  splitting  edges,  which  may  be  blunt  or 
dull,  and  yet  work  well  enough  and  without  much  power. 

"  Another  principle  to  be  observed  is  that  the  cross 
cutting  or  cross  severing  of  the  fibre  must  precede  the 
splitting  process  ;  the  cross-cutting  edges  must  act  first  and 
project  beyond  the  splitting  edges.  There  are  no  exceptions 
to  this  rule,  which  is  from  necessity  carried  out  in  most  cases ; 
yet  it  is  not  unfrequent  to  find  tools  working  on  the  contrary 
principle,  tearing  instead  of  cutting  away  the  wood. 

"In  some  cases  the  wood  is  cross  cut  at  such  short 
intervals  or  lengths,  that  no  splitting  edges  are  needed, 
yet  the  operation  is  the  same.  A  splitting  saw  is  an 
example  of  this  kind;  each  tooth  cuts  away  its  shaving, 
transverse  to,  or  across  the  fibre,  which  is  split  off  in  the 
act-  of  cross  cutting  without  requiring  separate  edges.  The 
cross-cut  saw  is  an  example  of  the  same  kind,  although 
apparently  different ;  the  different  shaped  teeth  that  are 
required  arise  from  the  manner  in  whicn  they  are  applied. 
AVith  the  ripping  or  slitting  saw  the  plate  is  parallel  to 
the  fibre,  and  with  the  cross-cut  saw  it  is  transverse  to  the 
fibre;  the  cutting  edges  in  both  cases  have  nearly  the 
same  relation  to  and  act  in  the  same  manner  on  the  fibres 
or  grain  of  the  wood;  in  short,  the  difference  between 
cross  cutting  and  ripping  saw  teeth  comes  from  the 
rotation  being  with  or  across  the  grain,  and  not  from  a 
difference  in  the  operation  of  cutting. 

H  2 


100  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

"  The  line  of  the  edge  is  parallel  to  the  plate  in  cross 
cutting,  and  transverse  to  the  plate  in  slitting.  As  before 
remarked  all  operations  in  wood  cutting  are  the  same 
in  principle,  and  can  be  resolved  into  some  such  simple 
propositions  as  follow ; — 

"First. — Wood  cutting  consists  in  two  operations  or 
processes ;  cross  cutting  and  splitting. 

"  Second. — Tools  for  wood  cutting  must  have  indepen- 
dent edges  directed  to  these  two  operations,  unless  the 
wood  is  cross  cut  into  short  lengths,  as  in  the  case  of  saws. 

"  Third. — The  cross-cutting  edges  must  project  beyond 
those  for  splitting,  and  act  first,  as  in  grooving  and 
tenoning  heads. 

"  Fourth. — Cross-cutting  edges  will,  if  applied  at  '  an 
angle  to  the  fibre,'  act  with  less  power  and  be  more 
durable. 

"  Fifth. — Splitting-edges  act  best  when  parallel  to  the 
fibre,  but '  at  an  angle  to  the  direction  of  their  movement.' 

"  Sixth. — Cutters  for  perforating,  or  end  tools,  as  we 
will  call  them,  should  be  arranged  to  have  their  action 
balanced  across  the  centre  whenever  practicable,  to  pre- 
vent jar  and  vibration." 

These  propositions  comprehend  the  whole  system  of 
cutter  action,  and  as  all  wood  manufacture  is  by  cutting, 
they  may  also  be  said  to  comprehend  all  that  is  done  in 
working  wood. 

We  shall  not  attempt  to  show  their  application  to 
planing,  moulding,  rabbeting,  sawing,  grooving,  shaping 
and  other  cutters,  the  reader  can  observe  this  himself,  and 
thus  will  acquire,  if  he  has  not  already  done  so,  a  general 
idea  of  principles,  that  will  guide  him  in  making,  setting, 
and  arranging  cutters  for  all  kinds  of  work,  without  fear 
of  making  mistakes  and  without  having  to  try  whether 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  101 

this  plan  or  that  plan  will  work.  It  will  also  furnish  a 
clue  to  the  proper  form  of  saw  teeth,  shearing  knives,  and 
other  details,  about  which  there  is  a  great  diversity  of 
opinion. 


THE  ANGLE  OF  WOOD  CUTTERS. 

While  the  operators  of  wood  machines  are  not  expected 
to  construct  their  own  cutter-heads,  it  is  expected  that  they 
will  furnish  plans  and  instructions  to  others  as  to  how 
they  should  be  made,  and  as  the  angles  at  which  the  cutters 
act  is  an  important  matter  in  the  making  of  machines,  it 
deserves  some  notice  here. 

The  views  given  on  the  subject  and  the  examples 
shown  are  not  based  upon  theoretical  inference  so  much 
as  upon  practical  experiment.  There  are  some  very  ob- 
scure conditions  connected  with  the  action  of  wood  cutters ; 
if  they  moved  as  slowly  as  metal-cutting  tools  we  could 
observe  and  note  the  process  of  their  action,  but  when 
in  motion  they  are  practically  invisible,  and  nothing  can 
be  determined  except  by  comparative  experiments. 

A  general  object  among  wood  workmen  seems  to  be  to 
get  as  low  or  acute  an  angle  for  cutters  as  possible, 
regardless  of  the  particular  uses  to  which  they  are  applied, 
and  then  to  prevent  slivering,  or  pulling  out  the  wood,  by 
means  of  caps.  There  are,  of  course,  exceptions  to  this 
rule,  especially  with  small  cutter-heads,  as  in  the  case  of 
shaping  machines,  but  exceptions  are  generally  necessary 
from  the  form  of  constructing  the  cutter-head  rather 
than  the  result  of  any  plans  that  have  reference  to  the 
work.  Never  trouble  with  nor  attempt  to  use  caps  on  the 
cutters  of  power  machines;  they  are  expensive,  inefficient 
to  perform  the  intended  purpose,  and  besides  unnecessary. 


102  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

Any  kind  of  wood,  including  boxwood,  rosewood,  soft 
wood  or  green  wood  of  all  descriptions  can  be  worked 
without  caps,  or  chip  breakers,  as  they  are  sometimes 
called,  simply  by  giving  the  edges  a  proper  angle,  and 
attending  to  other  conditions  to  be  noted. 

In  planing  veneers  by  hand  it  has  long  been  demon- 
strated that  the  plane  iron  requires  a  much  higher  angle 
than  for  other  work.  It  is  also  known  that  scraping  tools 
with  blunt  edges  are  the  only  tools  that  can  be  used  in 
turning  hard  woods  or  ivory ;  in  fact  with  all  hand  tools 
the  principle  of  varying  angles  adapted  to  the  work  seems 
to  be  well  known  and  generally  applied,  but  when  we 
come  to  power'  tools  we  find  planers  and  moulding 
machines  made  with  their  cutters  at  a  constant  angle, 
usually  as  acute  as  possible. 

In  determining  the  angle  of  cutters  the  following  pro- 
positions are  laid  down ; — 

1st.  In  cutting  clean  pine  for  surfacing,  matching,  or 
moulding,  the  angle  of  the  cutters  can  be  as  low  as  prac- 
ticable to  clear  a  good  washer  and  holding  bolt  with  a 
standard  head. 

2nd.  An  acute  angle  requires  a  thin  edge,  and  a  thin 
edge  cannot  at  the  same  time  be  a  hard  one,  nor,  for  that 
reason,  a  sharp  one,  except  in  working  soft  clean  lumber. 

3rd.  An  edge  may  be  hard,  and  kept  sharp,  as  the  angle 
is  obtuse  and  the  bevel  short. 

4th.  In  cutting  thin  shavings  the  operation  is  altogether 
cross  cutting,  and  a  sharp  edge  is  more  important  than  a 
thin  one. 

5th.  As  the  angle  of  cutters  becomes  more  obtuse,  or 
higher,  the  shape  of  the  edge  approaches  nearer  to  having 
the  same  profile  as  the  work,  and  the  cutters  for  moulded 
forms  are  cheaper  and  more  easily  made  and  kept  in  order 
than  if  at  a  low  angle. 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


103 


From  these  propositions  we  can  deduce  the  following 
rules,  which  are  recommended  to  operators  when  they 
have  occasion  to  determine  the  angle  and  bevel  of  wood 
cutters ; — 

For  planing  soft  wood  the  angle  at  Fig.  42,  of  40  degrees, 
is  suitable. 

FIG.  42. 


FIG.  43. 


,4k 


For  mixed  work,  partly  soft  and  partly  hard  wood,  the 
angle  at  Fig.  43  is  preferable ;  it  is  a  mean  to  comprehend 
the  two  kinds  of  wood. 


104 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 


For  working  hard  wood  alone,  such  as  oak,  ash,  walnut, 
cherry,  or  mahogany,  the  angle  Fig.  44  is  best,  while 

FIG.  44. 


for  the  very  hardest  varieties,  such  as  boxwood,  rosewood, 
banyan,  cocoa,  and  ebony,  working  crotch  or  cross-grained 
wood,  or  at  an  angle  against  the  grain,  the  cutters  should 
be  set  as  in  Fig.  45. 

FIG.  45. 


It  is  becoming  of  late  years  a  common  thing  for  planer 
men  to  grind  a  short  bevel  on  the  under  side  of  the  knives 
for  working  hard  or  cross-grained  lumber,  which  is  sub- 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  105 

stantially  the  same  thing  as  changing  the  angle  of  the 
cutters  and  making  the  bevel  shorter.  It  is  an  excellent 
plan,  as  it  would  be  impossible  to  change  the  cylinders 
when  a  machine  has  a  variety  of  work  to  do,  but  by  having 
some  extra  knives  ground  at  different  bevels  it  becomes 
an  easy  matter'  to  change  them,  and  one  that  will  pay 
well  for  the  trouble,  especially  if  the  knives  are  tempered 
harder  as  the  bevel  becomes  more  obtuse. 

It  will  be  found  in  practice  that  a  set  of  knives  that  are 
hardened  to  a  very  pale  straw  colour,  and  with  a  bevel 
ground  on  the  face  side,  just  enough  to  keep  the  edge  from 
breaking  out,  will  run  twice  as  long  and  do  smoother  work 
on  walnut,  ash,  or  oak  wood,  and  will  not  pull  out  the 
stuff  where  it  is  knotty  or  cross-grained. 

It  has  also  become  a  common  practice  in  some  parts  of 
the  country  to  turn  the  matcher  cutters  of  flooring 
machines  upside  down,  that  is,  to  turn  the  grinding  bevel 
to  the  lumber ;  this  is  an  effort  in  the  same  direction ;  a 
slow  change  from  the  necessities  of  practice,  instead  of 
from  inference,  as  it  might  be.  This  way  of  getting  an 
obtuse  angle  is  going  a  little  farther  than  is  recommended 
here,  but  to  halve  the  matter  by  grinding  on  both  sides  will 
be  found  an  advantage  in  matching  hard  wood,  including 
yellow  pine.  The  plan  is  an  old  one.  The  Knowles 
matching  heads,  introduced  about  1850,  had  this  idea 
fully  carried  out  by  having  the  bevel  on  the  inside  of  the 
cutters ;  they  were  always  considered  as  being  capable  of 
working  any  kind  of  lumber  without  tearing,  and  without 
clips  or  pressure  pads,  yet  for  some  strange  reason  the 
plan  was  not  carried  out  in  the  common  matcher  heads, 
probably  from  their  being  too  expensive.  We  will  notice 
one  more  fact  bearing  on  this  matter,  that  of  machines  for 
making  wave  mouldings ;  such  mouldings  are  cut  smooth, 


106  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

and  in  part  at  an  acute  angle  against  the  grain.  These 
mouldings  are  not  as  a  rule  torn  or  spoiled  in  working, 
yet  the  whole  secret  of  their  manufacture,  often  a  matter 
of  curiosity,  is  nothing  more  than  to  set  the  cutters  at 
right  angles  to  the  face  of  the  moulding.  The  feed  move- 
ment is  given  to  the  wood,  and  the  reciprocating  motion  to 
the  cutters,  which  act  as  scrapers. 


SHAKPENING  CUTTEKS  AND  SAWS. 

If  the  cost  of  sharpening  cutters  and  saws  in  a  wood- 
working factory  were  added  to  the  profits,  it  would  make 
a  great  difference  in  the  earnings.  We  have  no  idea  of 
the  cost  until  we  keep  an  account  of  the  time — the 
detention  of  machines,  wear  of  files,  and  grinding  ma- 
chinery, and  the  wear  of  the  cutters  themselves  due  to 
grinding  and  sharpening. 

Corundum  or  emery  wheels  are  now  generally  used  for 
dressing  both  saws  and  cutters,  and  their  introduction 
during  the  last  five  years  has  been  one  of  the  principal 
improvements  that  has  taken  place  in  wood  manufac- 
ture. The  saving  of  both  time  and  files,  and  the  more 
accurate  grinding  that  can  be  done  on  cutters,  amounts 
to  a  saving  of  onetwentieth  of  the  whole  labour  account 
for  machine  work,  when  these  wheels  are  properly  and 
fully  applied. 

Saws  are  now  sharpened  with  such  wheels,  in  cases 
when  they  can  be  removed  from  their  mandrils ;  and  there 
is  no  doubt  that  lumber  mills  could  be  fitted  with  a  port- 
able grinding  apparatus,  that  could  be  adjusted  to  the 
teeth  in  such  a  manner  as  to  sharpen  the  saws  sooner  and 
better  than  with  files. 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  107 

Fd.  Arbey,  a  prominent  builder  of  wood  machines  in 
France,  fits  his  planing  machines  with  grinding  wheels 
that  are  traversed  parallel  to  the  cylinder,  and  produces 
with  the  arrangement  edges  that  can  in  no  other  way  be 
made  so  true  and  straight;  they  are  absolutely  perfect. 
We  may  grind  planer  knives  tolerably  straight  with  a 
common  slide  and  a  stone,  using  a  straight-edge ;  but  when 
they  are  set,  the  chances  are  that  they  cannot  be  got  true 
on  the  cylinder;  but  with  this  self-contained  grinding 
apparatus  the  edges  are  ground  precisely  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  cylinder,  besides  avoiding  the  inaccuracy  and 
loss  of  time  needed  to  remove  and  reset  them.  Often  the 
machines  have  to  be  stopped  during  the  time  of  grinding, 
and  the  chances  are  that  the  detention  will  be  less  than 
what  would  be  required  to  remove  and  reset  the  knives 
without  grinding  them.  The  attention  of  wood  manufac- 
turers is  invited  to  this  thing  as  one  that  may  effect  a 
great  saving  and  convenience. 

It  was  remarked  at  the  beginning  that  the  main  wear 
upon  cutters  was  from  grinding.  This  should  have  read  by 
improper  grinding. 

Two-thirds  at  least  of  the  wear  of  flat  or  straight 
cutters  come  from  careless  grinding,  or  over-grinding. 
To  grind  a  cutter  up  to  its  edge  makes  a  waste  of  from 
Jr  to  sV  of  an  inch  of  its  length  in  all  cases.  The  ground 
edge  is  not  fit  to  work  with,  and  after  grinding  it  is  neces- 
sary to  whet  a  new  bevel  for  a  working  edge  before  using 
it,  and  the  cutter  is  then  just  in  the  condition  it  would 
have  been  if  the  grinding  had  been  stopped  short  of  the 
edge,  leaving  what  we  will  term  a  whetting  bevel.  This  is 
especially  true  of  moulding  cutters  with  an  irregular  profile 
at  their  edges,  which  should  from  the  nature  of  their  work, 
if  there  were  no  other  reasons,  have  a  compound  bevel. 


108  THE  OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 

Fig.  46  shows  a  cutter  with  a  compound  or  double  bevel , 
and  Fig.  47  one  with  a  single  bevel. 

FIG.  4G.  FIG.  47. 


Now  that  the  cutter  shown  at  Fig.  46  is  as  stiff  and 
strong  as  the  one  at  Fig.  47  no  one  will  dispute,  and  that 
the  first  is  more  easily  whet  and  ground  is  obvious. 

The  art  of  taking  care  of  cutters  consists  in  whetting 
the  edges  as  the  wear  requires  it,  and  never  grinding  to 
the  edge,  or  near  enough  to  weaken  it.  If  a  cutter  is  not 
straight,  joint  it  the  first  thing,  then  grind  the  whetting 
bevel  very  carefully,  and  afterwards  the  grinding  bevel, 
which  should  never  come  nearer  than  ^  of  an  inch  from 
the  cutting  edge. 

For  planer-knives,  have  a  coarse  grain,  soft  stone,  of  the 
kind  known  as  machine  stone,  not  less  than  40  inches  in 
diameter  when  new ;  have  a  tight  water  box  and  hood, 
and  in  grinding  use  a  heavy  stream  of  water;  the  stone 
should  be  strongly  belted,  and  instead  of  rubbing  for  an 
hour  to  make  an  edge  on  a  fine  hard  stone,  you  will  in  ten 
minutes  finish  the  knife,  and  have  fifty  minutes  saved  to 
devote  to  some  more  agreeable  work.  Grinding  flat  cutters 
is  not — or  at  least  should  not  be — making  an  edge ;  it  is 
removing  the  surplus  material  used  to  support  the  edge. 

For  moulding  irons,  emery  wheels  are  best.  They 
should,  however,  for  this  purpose  be  specially  arranged  by 
having  not  less  than  five  wheels  on  a  spindle,  arranged  so 


THE  OPERATOR  S  HANDBOOK. 


109 


that  they  can  be  shifted  to  different  positions,  or  taken  off 
and  put  on  instantly,  as  may  be  required. 

The  machines  manu- 
factured and  sold  in 
the  market  for  ordinary 
grinding  purposes  are 
not  fitted  for  use  in 
wood  shops,  and  it  is 
better  to  have  them 
specially  made,  as  in 
Fig.  48,  than  to  pur- 
chase the  ordinary  ma- 
chines used  for  general 
grinding.  There  will, 
no  doubt,  in  time  be 
modifications  for  mould- 
ing cutters;  but  there  « 
are  none  now  in  general  £ 
use  that  are  convenient.  ^ 

The  wheels  can  be 
moulded  on  the  flanges, 
as  seen  in  the  section 
at  the  centre,  the  emery 
being  from  2  to  3  inches 
deep,  which  is  as  much 
as  can  be  worn  out  in 
any  case ;  manufac- 
turers of  wheels  will 
furnish  the  disks,  or  they 
can  be  prepared  and 
sent  to  their  works  to 
have  the  rims  moulded 
on  them. 


110  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

In  preparing  the  disks,  or  centre  plates,  have  at  least 
two  sets,  so  that  one  can  be  sent  to  have  the  rims  renewed 
while  the  others  are  in  use. 

Fig.  49  represents  a  wet-stone  machine  for  grinding 
moulding  irons,  used  in  the  large  mills  in  England.  It  is 

FIG.  49. 


well  adapted  to  the  purpose,  and  with  the  proper  kind 
of  stones  will  last  a  long  time,  and  preserve  the  shape 
on  the  periphery.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  of  the 
emery  wheels  being  best,  after  the  men  have  learned  to 
use  them.  At  first,  the  stones  will  have  the  preference,  as 
the  use  of  the  wheels  requires  some  special  knowledge 
and  skill,  while  grinding  with  stones  is  well  and  generally 
understood. 

For  working  flooring  and  other  kinds  of  planing,  thin 
flexible  cutters  made  from  the  best  sheet  cast  steel,  from 
14  to  12  gauge  in  thickness,  will  be  found  a  cheap  and 
effective  kind  of  knife ;  they  are  now  regularly  made 
to  any  pattern  by  saw  makers  and  tempered  to  a  hard 
filing  temper,'  so  that  they  can  be  sharpened  on  the 
cylinder  without  taking  them  off.  To  hold  them  there 
should  be  used  a  stiff  steel  cap,  T5^-  to  f  in.  thick,  slightly 
concave  on  its  under  side,  and  made  without  having  the 
bolt  holes  slotted.  In  many  cases  thin  knives  of  this  kind 
are  used  by  placing  old  cutters  on  the  back,  instead  of 
having  proper  caps  made,  a  plan  that  is  apt  to  lead  to  a 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  Ill 

bad  result.  Their  use  is  no  experiment,  and  when  adopted, 
if  at  all,  it  should  be  done,  like  everything  else,  under  fair 
conditions  and  not  with  a  view  to  experiment  only.  The 
successful  working  of  these  thin  cutters  depends  upon  their 
being  held  firmly,  and  in  any  case  where  they  have  failed 
to  work  satisfactorily,  it  will  generally  be  found  that  the 
fault  was  in  the  caps,  unless  it  was  from  the  bad  quality 
of  the  steel.  Sheet  cast  steel  from  the  best  makers  is  by 
no  means  an  inferior  article  for  such  cutters  if  carefully 
worked  and  not  overheated  in  tempering.  What  will 
answer  for  a  saw  will  not  do  for  cutters  that  have  sharp 
edges,  not  that  a  saw  is  not  better  if  made  from  fine  steel, 
but  the  edges  are  more  obtuse  and  not  so  liable  to  break. 

These  flexible  cutters  were  patented  first  by  Godeau  in 
France,  subsequently  by  Gedge  in  England,  and  perhaps 
several  times  in  America,  so  that  the  plan  is  well  patented, 
if  that  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  recommendation.  In 
sharping  these  cutters,  fine  float  mill  saw  files  of  the 
best  quality  should  be  used.  As  a  rule  it  is  an  expensive 
plan  to  sharpen  tempered  steel  tools  with  files,  but  in 
this  case  the  cutter  is  so  thin,  and  there  is  so  little  to  file 
away,  that  when  the  time  of  taking  off  and  resetting  solid 
cutters  is  considered,  there  is  a  great  saving  of  cost  by  the 
use  of  these  thin  ones,  although  sharpened  with  files.  The 
edge  must  of  course  be  finished  with  a  stone  to  make  it 
smooth. 

A  good  rule,  or  we  may  say  a  good  improvement, 
about  wood  shops,  can  be  effected  by  abandoning  hard  fine 
stones  for  grinding  tools  of  any  kind,  except  moulding  bits. 
They  are  used  under  the  false  impression  that  they  are 
to  make  edges,  but  are  really  a  machine  to  remove  and 
cut  away  metal,  like  a  lathe  or  planing  machine,  with 
the  difference  that  they  will  cut  hardened  steel,  which 


112  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

the  others  will  not;  and  until  the  grindstone  comes  to 
be  considered  in  this  light,  it  must  be  expected  that  a 
great  waste  of  time  and  a  great  waste  of  tools  will  take 
place.  In  grinding,  get  a  large  stone  of  the  kind  before 
described,  arrange  so  as  to  use  plenty  of  water,  without 
making  a  slop  about  the  stone;  have  the  belts  strong 
enough  to  overcome  any  amount  of  pressure  in  grinding, 
and  the  result  will  be  that  from  being  a  slow,  tedious  job, 
grinding  will  be  but  a  trifle,  and  be  done  to  a  great  deal 
more  satisfaction  by  the  workmen. 

For  sharpening  small  tools,  such  as  auger  bits,  mortise 
chisels,  or  others  that  have  angular  corners,  have  a  neat 
case,  containing  about  a  dozen  of  good  files  with  various 
sections,  triangular,  square,  round,  half-round,  knife  edge, 
flat,  and  so  on,  set  in  not  to  rub  together,  each  one  to 
have  its  own  handle ;  in  the  same  case  should  be  kept 
several  slips  of  Washita  stone,  ground  to  various  forms 
on  their  edges,  to  finish  with. 

Wood  workmen  having  every  facility  to  prepare  lockers 
and  cases,  generally  verify  the  old  proverb  in  being 
without  them.  In  a  machine  shop  there  are,  as  a  rule, 
places  to  keep  tools  and  stores;  the  planers,  lathes,  and 
drills  have  their  lockers ;  but  in  our  wood  shops  the  tools 
generally  lie  around  loose,  and  are  only  found,  when 
wanted,  after  a  good  hunt,  provided  the  article  has  not 
gone  out  in  the  shavings  and  into  the  furnace.  In  the 
matter  of  files  alluded  to,  how  much  neater  and  more 
economical  it  is  to  have  a  case  to  keep  them  in,  than  to 
have  them  lying  on  the  benches,  to  be  used  for  purposes 
not  intended,  and  spoiled ;  one-half  the  number  will  do 
if  taken  care  of,  and  the  whole  time  of  hunting  for  them 
be  saved,  to  say  nothing  of  doing  without  them  just  when 
they  are  most  needed. 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  113 

To  go  into  a  wood  shop  and  find  a  job  bench  containing 
three  or  four  files  with  the  tips  broken  off,  a  cob  handle  to 
be  used  between  them,  a  monkey  wrench  without  a  handle, 
or  without  a  screw,  a  lot  of  nails,  old  bolts,  paint  pots,  and 
other  junk  piled  upon  it,  at  once  indicates  the  character 
of  the  establishment;  and  as  what  the  manager  does 
generally  determines  what  the  men  do,  he  can  be  set  down 
as  responsible  for  the  whole.  We  cannot  therefore  too 
earnestly  recommend  order  and  system  in  all  things,  espe- 
cially in  such  appliances  as  relate  to  tool  dressing,  which 
is  the  odd  department  in  a  wood  shop,  and  an  important 
one  if  measured  by  its  expenses,  all  of  which  go  to  the 
wrong  side  of  the  accounts. 


SAWS  AND  SAWING  MACHINERY. 
CIRCULAR   SAWS. 

Circular  sawing  machines,  or  saw  benches  as  they  are 
generally  called,  are  in  America  for  the  most  part  made 
by  the  wood  manufacturers  themselves,  with  wooden  frames 
and  wooden  tops,  both  for  slitting  and  for  cross  cutting. 

In.  speaking  of  saws,  therefore,  we  shall  consider  the 
manner  of  constructing  the  machines  as  well  as  how  to 
run  them,  because  they  are  generally  of  home  manu- 
facture, but  more  especially  because  the  matter  is  one 
that  deserves  more  consideration  than  it  has  heretofore 
received.  They  are,  as  a  class  of  machines,  less  perfectly 
made  than  almost  any  other  in  use,  which  is  only  to  be 
accounted  for  in  the  fact  that  we  regard  them  as  a  kind  of 
rough  blocking-out  machine,  and  perhaps  because  they  are 
so  familiar  that  we  do  not  trouble  to  investigate  them. 

Considering  the  great  number  of  saws  that  are  used,  and 
that  they  are  the  principal  and  first  machines  in  most 

i 


114  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

kinds  of  wood  manufacture,  it  is  strange  that  we  do  not 
make  as  much  progress  in  their  improvement  as  in  other 
machines,  or  as  their  relative  importance  would  seem  to 
claim.  Nothing  is  more  common  in  wood  shops  than 
to  find  slitting  benches  six  to  eight  feet  long,  with  a 
mandril  in  the  centre,  and  a  guard  extending  nearly  the 
whole  length  of  the  top.  Even  prominent  makers  are  con- 
tinually building  machines  arranged  in  this  way.  A  bench 
of  this  length  with  a  guard  extending  past  the  plate  cannot 
work  properly  or  do  true  work ;  and  if  it  would,  no  one 
could  reach  it  to  operate  with  any  convenience.  The  rear 
end  of  a  bench  is  needed  to  support  the  timber  after  it  has 
passed  out  of  reach,  but  the  front  end  next  the  sawyer 
should  never  be  so  long  but  that  the  saw  can  be  easily 
reached,  say  from  20  to  24  inches  beyond  the  teeth  of  the 
smallest  saws  used. 

The  gauges  should  never  extend  much,  if  any,  beyond 
the  front  teeth,  as  shown  in  Fig.  34,  and  described  before ; 
there  is  no  need  of  framing  an  argument  in  this  matter,  it 
is  too  plain  to  need  discussion. 

With  carriage  saws,  such  as  are  used  for  jointing  floor 
boards  or  slitting  very  long  stuff,  when  the  operator  has 
to  walk  along  the  side  of  the  bench,  the  saw  may,  of  course, 
stand  at  any  part  of  the  bench ;  the  centre  of  the  slide 
would  be  the  proper  place,  and  a  guard  behind  the  saw 
may  be  needed,  but  not  an  extension  of  the  one  in  front  ; 
it  should  be  a  separate  one,  that  can  be  set  on  a  different 
line  to  prevent  'crowding  the  piece  on  the  saw,  and  so  that 
both  gauges  may  be  set  parallel  to  the  saw  plate.  The 
rear  guard  should  only  be  used  when  indispensable,  which 
means  almost  the  same  thing  as  not  at  all. 

Circular  saws  in  America,  except  for  timber  cutting, 
are  generally  without  guides  to  support  them,  and  without 
packing  boxes  to  keep  the  saw  oiled  and  clear  of  gum. 


THE    OPERATORS    HANDBOOK. 


115 


FIG.  50. 


FIG.  51. 


The  result  is  that  the  saws  have  to  be  at  least  one-third 
thicker  in  order  to  be  rigid  enough  for  their  work,  con- 
suming power,  and  wasting  kerf  in  proportion.  This  needs 
thorough  reform, 
and  all  benches 
where  the  top  is 
not  arranged  to 
adjust  for  grooving 
should  have  guides 
and  packing  boxes. 
Fig.  50  is  a  section 
through  a  set  of 
guides  for  the 
front,  and  Fig.  51, 
a  section  through 
a  packing  box  for 
the  rear,  adapted 
to  an  ordinary  rip- 
ping saw  bench. 

The  front  half 
of  the  table  a 
should  be  loose  on 
the  frame,  and  arranged  to  slide  back  to  remove  the  saw. 
If  made  of  wood  it  can  be  held  flush  with  hard  wood  dowels 
or  cross  cleats  on  the  bottom,  and  when  together  be  held 
by  iron  dowels  or  screws  passing  clown  through  from  the 
top.  The  front  guides,  Fig.  50,  should  be  of  hard  wood, 
with  the  end  to  the  saw,  the  bolt-holes  slotted  so  as  to  set 
them  up  for  wear.  The  packing  or  oiling  boxes  at  Fig.  51 
are  arranged  the  same  way,  so  that  the  lower  bars  can 
be  kept  up  against  the  plate.  The  chambers  are  filled  by 
winding  packing  of  hemp  or  cotton  about  a  square  strip  of 
wood,  until  it  will  fill  the  cavity,  and  then  soaking  in  oil 
before  putting  it  in.  Holes  can  be  made  to  oil  the  pack- 

i  2 


116 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


ing  regularly,  and  the  effect  will  be  found  quite  different 
from  throwing  oil  on  the  plate — a  most  wasteful  and  yet 
common  custom. 

The  advantages  derived  from  supporting  the  saw  both 
at  the  back  and  front  are  obvious,  and  the  experiment  will 
satisfy  anyone  of  its  utility.  In  England  all  ripping  saws 
are  arranged  for  a  packing,  consisting  generally  of  nothing 
more  than  a  groove  along  the  side  of  the  plate,  into  which 
a  bar  of  wood  wound  with  packing  can  be  pressed.  This, 
of  course,  does  for  the  front  of  the  saw,  but  not  so  well 
behind,  and  is  inconvenient  in  taking  out  the  hand  plates 
with  which  benches  in  that  country  are  usually  fitted. 

In  addition  to  what  has  already  been  said  about  saw 
gauges,  it  is  as  well  to  observe  that  the  greater  their 
ingenuity  and  complication,  the  less  their  utility ;  a  rule 
that  holds  good  in  most  other  things.  The  guides  and 
packing  boxes  beneath  the  top  are  out  of  the  way,  out  of 
danger,  and  require  no  special  attention ;  but  the  gauges, 
with  everything  about  the  top  of  a  bench,  must  be  strong 
and  simple. 

As  it  will  often  be  necessary  to  make,  or  to  have  made, 
saw  mandrils  for  different  purposes,  we  give  the  following 
Table  of  dimensions,  which  can  be  referred  to  for  pro- 
portions ; — 


For 
Saws  to 
the 

diam.  of 

Diatn.  of 
Mandril. 

Length 
over 
Bear- 
ings. 

Diam.  of 
Pulley. 

Face  of 
Pulley. 

Length 
of 
Bearing. 

Diam.  of 
Collars. 

Diam.  of 
Hole  in 
Saw. 

Number 
of  Revo- 
lutions 
a  Minute. 

Size  of 
Nut 

n 

„ 

„ 

n 

n 

„ 

„ 

„ 

„ 

10 

H 

18 

5 

4 

4i 

2* 

1 

3000 

| 

15 

H 

20 

6 

5 

5 

3 

H 

2700 

1 

20 

if 

24 

8 

7 

5i 

3* 

H 

2400 

H 

25 

H 

27 

10 

8 

6 

4 

if 

2100 

H 

30 

if 

31 

12 

9 

7 

H 

H 

1800 

If 

36 

2 

36 

14 

10 

8 

5 

If 

1500 

H 

THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  117 

\\**J*      \tt         mjff- 

These  proportions  exceed  those  of  common  practice, 
especially  in  belt  power,  but  are  none  too  large  to  give 
a  good  result.  Saw  mandrils,  instead  of  being  as  light 
as  they  can  be  to  do  their  work,  should  be  as  strong  as 
possible,  to  stand  the  speed,  and  there  can  be  no  reason 
for  making  them  less,  except  a  trifling  saving  in  first 
cost,  which  in  this,  as  in  many  other  cases,  turns  out 
losing  in  the  second  cost. 

The  saw  collars  should  be  of  wrought  iron,  welded  on ; 
the  pulleys,  when  on  the  end,  put  on  with  a  nut  and  a 
taper  fit,  without  keys,  which  are  not  necessary. 

The  form  of  teeth  for  ripping  saws,  would  require 
lengthy  notice  to  comprehend  all  the  various  plans  in 
practice,  and  would  be  of  but  little  use ;  most  operators, 
although  they  may  not  keep  the  teeth  of  saws  to  a  proper 
shape,  know  what  that  shape  should  be.  The  proper 
form  is  easily  determined,  from  the  principles  already 
laid  down,  as  well  as  from  the  nature  of  the  work,  and 
the  whole  can  be  summed  up  in  a  sentence — have  the 
points  as  thin,  and  at  an  angle  as  acute,  as  they  will 
stand. 

In  setting  saws  the  custom  is  to  bend  the  teeth :  a  great 
many  set  differently,  but  bending  is  the  most  common 
practice,  so  common  indeed,  that  it  is  a  bold  assertion  to 
say  that  it  is  wrong,  or  that  another  plan  is  better.  Yet 
to  bend  a  saw  tooth,  is  not  to  set  it,  in  a  technical  sense, 
and  hardly  in  any  other  sense,  for  it  soon  comes  out  in 
working.  A  tooth  in  being  set  over  must  have  a  sharp 
blow  on  the  inside  to  stretch  the  steel,  and  hold  it  in 
position,  and  as  it  is  the  easiest  and  truest  plan  to  set  saws 
of  any  kind  with  a  hammer,  there  is  no  reason  why  it 
should  not  be  practised. 


118 


THE    OPEKATOES   HANDBOOK. 


For  setting  circular  saws,  a  frame,  as  shown  in  Fig.  52, 
is  convenient.     It  consists  of  a  rail,  say  8x5  inches,  of 

FIG.  52. 


TOP 


1 

o 

a    1 

hard  wood,  with  a  sliding  block  on  top,  fitted  with  wood 
studs  of  various  sizes  to  fit  the  holes  in  the  saws ;  on  one 
end  is  placed  a  steel  laid  anvil,  to  weigh  from  15  Ibs.  to 
30  Ibs.,  with  its  face  bevelled  off  to,  say,  ten  degrees  each 
way  from  the  centre.  The  saw  being  placed  on  the  stud, 
is  moved  out  or  in  upon  the  anvil  until  the  teeth  come 
over  the  centre ;  the  anvil  is  turned  until  its  corner  or 
apex  comes  across  the  tooth,  in  the  position  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines,  with  the  tooth  standing  over  from  -^  to  \ 
inch  as  the  amount  of  set  needed  and  the  size  of  the 
tooth  may  require.  The  tooth  is  then  struck  a  quick 
sharp  blow  with  a  light  hammer,  at  an  angle  as  shown 
by  the  line  a,  or  several  blows,  until  the  bottom  of 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  ,  110 

the  tooth  is  set  over  as  shown.  This  forms  a  kind  of 
curved  scraper  edge  on  the  outside,  which  keeps  the  side 
of  the  tooth  clear  of  the  wood,  scrapes  the  surfaces  smooth, 
and  will  stay  there  until  filed  away  in  sharpening.  The 
teeth  will  be  a  little  bruised  after  setting,  but  this  bruising 
does  no  harm  and  is  removed  in  a  single  filing. 

All  kinds  of  circular  saws  can  be  set  on  the  same  device. 
It  is  cheap  to  make,  always  in  order,  and  easily  under- 
stood. The  teeth  of  cross-cutting  saws  require  setting  at 
a  different  angle,  but  can  be  set  in  the  same  manner. 
Finally,  on  the  subject  of  circular  saws,  they  are  too 
much  regarded  as  a  kind  of  blocking-out  machine,  to 
divide  stuff  into  pieces  that  are  afterwards  to  be  brought 
to  dimensions.  This  comes  from  the  fact  that  the  great 
object  in  the  United  States  has  hitherto  been  to  save 
labour,  and  not,  as  in  Europe,  to  save  material.  If  a  man 
in  sawing  has,  from  the  imperfection  of  his  machine,  to 
allow  an  eighth  of  an  inch  on  each  piece  for  bad  sawing, 
and  his  saw  cuts  out  one-third  more  kerf  than  is  necessary, 
he  soon  saws  up  his  wages  in  waste,  especially  with  the 
more  valuable  kinds  of  lumber. 

'A  sawing  machine  for  slitting  should  be  the  most  care- 
fully and  accurately  constructed  in  all  regards;  the 
lumber  should  and  can  be  cut  down  to  the  size,  leaving 
just  enough  to  dress  it  smooth.  The  frames  and  tops, 
more  than  any  other  machine,  need  to  be  made  of  iron, 
so  as  to  withstand  rough  use,  dampness,  and  wear.  These 
are  not  theoretical  propositions,  but  deductions  from  the 
practice  in  countries  where  lumber  is  saved,  a  distinction 
that  cannot  long  exist  at  the  prices  that  lumber  has  now 
reached  in  the  States. 

Cut-off  saws,  like  ripping  saws,  are  often  built  in  the 
shops,  with  wooden  framing,  which  is  much  better  than  in 


120  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

the  case  of  slitting  benches.  They  are  divided  into  two 
kinds,  those  in  which  the  saw  is  fed  through  the  lumber, 
and  those  that  have  carriages  for  moving  the  stuff,  the 
first  for  lumber  that  is  long  and  unwieldy,  and  the  second 
for  shorter  and  lighter  work.  The  carriage  cut-off  saw  is 
best  whenever  the  lumber  is  easier  to  move  than  the 
saw,  and  the  swing  or  travelling  saw  in  the  opposite  case, 
a  rule  easy  to  remember  and  easily  understood. 

The  carriage  saw  has  an  advantage  in  its  greater  sim- 
plicity, and  the  consequent  durability,  of  its  mechanism. 
The  plans  of  construction  are  endless,  and  no  suggestions 
of  use  can  be  given  here,  except  that  the  carriages  should 
be  kept  square  by  means  of  a  rack  on  each  end,  gearing 
into  pinions  on  a  shaft  extending  along  under  the  carriage  ; 
this  admits  of  its  being  mounted  on  rollers,  which  could 
not  well  be  used  without  the  squaring  shaft. 


BAND  SAWS. 

Among  the  improvements  in  wood-working  machinery 
none  have  been  so  rapidly  and  generally  adopted  in 
America  as  band  saws.  From  having,  as  we  may  say, 
none  in  use  nine  years  ago  (1864),  we  now  find  them  in 
nearly  every  shop  of  any  size,  and  in  some  cases  not  only 
doing  scroll  cutting,  but  used  for  straight  lines.  In  at 
least  one  large  establishment  in  New  York  city  no  cir- 
cular saws  are  used  except  for  cross  cutting  —  all  other 
sawing,  coarse  and  fine,  being  done  on  the  band  saws. 
As  a  matter  of  interest  to  the  reader  rather  than  to 
convey  any  useful  information,  we  will  mention  that 
although  it  has  so  rapidly  gone  into  use  in  the  nine 
years  past,  the  machine  was  invented  in  1808  by  William 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  121 

Newberry,  of  London,  England,  —  not  only  invented, 
but  built  in  a  good  practical  working  form,  as  drawings 
and  descriptions  yet  in  existence  fully  attest.  Con- 
sidering its  present  importance  and  extended  use,  it  is 
hard  to  realize  or  believe  that  a  machine  of  the  kind 
should  lie  dormant  for  more  than  sixty  years  after  its 
invention. 

What  the  future  of  the  band  saw  may  be  is  hard  to  fore- 
tell ;  but  judged  upon  general  principles  that  govern  the 
operation  of  all  sawing,  there  is  a  probability  of  its  sup- 
planting every  other  method.  Consisting  of  a  thinner 
blade  than  can  otherwise  be  used,  capable  of  any  degree 
of  tension,  and  moving  at  a  higher  speed  than  it  is  pos- 
sible to  run  other  saws,  its  advantages  are  too  obvious  to 
warrant  any  other  conclusion.  Besides,  it  cuts  square 
through  the  lumber,  and,  as  a  very  important  advantage, 
is  operated  by  rotary  shafts  and  wheels  running  at  a 
moderate  speed.  There  is,  in  fact,  nothing  to  prevent 
its  use  for  every  kind  of  sawing,  unless  it  be  from  diffi- 
cult conditions  of  operation,  which  have  not  thus  far 
arisen. 

The  fear  of  breaking  blades,  or  the  inability  to  manu- 
facture them,  seems  to  have  been  for  forty  years  or  more 
what  deterred  people  from  using  the  machines.  This 
trouble  has  been  overcome,  and  band  saws  of  good  quality 
will  do  as  much  cutting  as  other  saws,  measured  by  their 
value  or  cost.  Joining  the  blades,  from  being  regarded  as 
the  next  thing  to  impossible,  has  become  so  simple  a 
matter  as  to  be  performed  in  every  shop,  and  almost  by 
any  person. 

To  first  speak  of  the  blades,  they  should  have  a  high 
spring  temper;  if  harder,  they  become  more  liable  to 
fracture,  are  difficult  to  sharpen,  and  will  be  broken  in 


122  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

setting.  A  saw  that  has  not  a  good  lively  temper  is 
comparatively  worthless. 

It  is  quite  impossible  after  a  saw  is  finished  to  tell 
whether  it  is  properly  tempered  throughout;  if  an  inch 
even  of  its  length  has  not  been  tempered,  or  is  drawn  by 
polishing  or  grinding,  it  is  as  bad  as  though  the  whole 
saw  was  wrong,  for  such  spots  cannot  be  found,  and  if  they 
were  found,  there  would  be  no  remedy  but  to  cut  them 
out.  We  must  therefore  trust  mainly  to  the  skill  and 
good  faith  of  the  saw  makers,  and  should  patronize  those 
who  have  been  longest  and  most  successfully  engaged  in 
their  manufacture. 

In  selecting  saws,  a  good  plan  to  test  the  temper,  if  the 
saw  is  not  joined,  is  to  roll  up  the  ends,  and  see  if  it  will 
spring  back  straight  or  remain  bent.  If  it  spring  back 
nearly  to  its  first  shape,  the  temper  is  good.  The  texture 
or  grain  of  the  steel,  which  is  the  only  clue  to  quality, 
can  be  determined  by  breaking  a  short  piece  from  the 
end  of  the  blade.  By  unrolling  the  blade  on  the  floor,  it 
can  be  tested  as  to  straightness.  The  ends,  if  laid  to- 
gether, will  show  if  it  is  parallel  and  of  the  same  width 
throughout. 

The  processes  of  joining  now  in  use  can  be  divided  into 
brazing  and  soldering,  the  distinction  relating  mainly  to 
how  the  joining  is  done  rather  than  to  any  difference  in 
its  nature.  In  what  is  termed  soldering,  the  melting  or 
heating  is  effected  with  hot  irons,  and  in  brazing  the  saw 
itself  is  put  into  the  fire. 

Brass,  spelter,  German  silver,  and  other  alloys  can  be 
used,  for  joining,  any  of  which  make  a  joint  that,  if  well 
made,  will  be  as  strong  as  other  parts  of  the  blade,  that 
is,  will  stand  an  equal  tension,  for  the  tendency  to  fracture 
is  greatest  alongside  the  joints,  where  the  union  takes 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  123 

place  between  the  tempered  steel  and  the  portion  that  is 
annealed  in  making  the  joint. 

For  solder  joints  the  silver  solder  of  jewellers  is  con- 
venient ;  it  is  strong  and  melts  at  a  low  heat.  The  most 
convenient  form  is  to  have  it  rolled  in  thin  strips,  so  that 
pieces  the  size  of  the  lap  can  be  cut  off  and  laid  between. 
To  make  joints  of  this  kind  there  is  required  a  strong 
heavy  pair  of  wrought-iron  tongs  and  some  kind  of  a  frame 
to  hold  the  saw  straight,  leaving  the  joint  free  at  the  ends 
to  be  clasped  with  the  tongs. 

FIG.  53. 


Fig.  53  shows  a  pair  of  tongs  and  scarfing  frame  for 
soldering,  adapted  for  blades  to  2  inches  wide. 

The  saw  should  be  scarfed  or  tapered  at  the  ends  for 
a  length  corresponding  to  one  or  two  teeth,  as  the  pitch 
may  determine.  This  scarfing  must  be  done  true  and 
level,  or  the  joint  will  not  be  a  close  one. 

Next  cleanse  the  joint  with  acid,  to  remove  grease ; 
put  the  solder  between,  and  clasp  the  saw  with  the  tongs, 
which  should  have  a  full  red  heat.  As  soon  as  the  solder 
runs,  remove  the  tongs  and  apply  a  wet  sponge  or  cloth  to 
restore  the  temper  in  part.  The  joint  can  then  be  filed 
parallel  by  using  a  wire  gauge  or  pair  of  calipers  to 
determine  the  thickness,  being  careful  to  file  the  proper 
amount  from  each  side. 

This  last  is  in  fact  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  opera- 
tion, and  requires  great  care  to  have  the  saw  parallel  and 
straight,  without  making  it  thinner  at  the  joint  than  at 
other  places. 


124  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

Fig.  54  shows  a  forge  for  brazing  band  saws,  which, 
aside  from  the  original  cost  of  the  outfit,  is  the  cheapest 
FJG  54  process,  and  certainly  the 

best  plan  of  joining  nar- 
row blades.  The  fire  is  of 
charcoal,  about  2J  inches 
square;  the  degree  of 
heat  is  accurately  regu- 
lated by  the  treadle, 
which  is  operated  by  the 
foot. 

The  saw  is  first  scarfed, 
as  in  the  other  case,  the 
joint  then  wound  with 
brass  wire,  fluxed  with 
borax,  and  placed  in  the 
fire  until  the  brass  melts 
and  runs  into  the  joint ; 
the  saw  is  then  to  be 
quickly  removed  from  the 
fire  and  placed  upon  a  kind  of  anvil,  and  the  joint  quickly 
pressed  together  while  the  brass  is  in  a  melted  state.  The 
detached  pieces  shown  below  are  details  of  the  forge,  for 
concentrating  the  fire,  holding  the  saw,  and  other  pur- 
poses. 

One  of  the  main  points  in  operating  band  saws  is  to 
avoid  bending  the  blades  edgewise,  which  is  more  easily 
and  frequently  done  than  would  be  imagined.  The  wheels 
require  to  be  so  adjusted  that  the  saw  will  only  touch, 
and  not  bear  against  the  back  guides  when  not  cutting ; 
and  as  different  saws  and  different  positions  of  the  guides 
as  to  height  will  vary  this  back  thrust,  it  requires  constant 
attention  from  the  sawyer. 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  125 

The  amount  of  back  pressure  is  easily  determined  by 
placing  a  piece  of  wood  behind  the  saw  while  it  is  running 
and  pressing  it  forward,  noting  the  amount  of  force  it 
requires,  and  then  setting  the  wheels  until  it  bears  lightly 
on  the  back. 

This  edge  strain,  as  we  will  call  it,  is  generally  provided 
for  by  an  adjustment  of  the  axis  of  the  top  wheel,  which 
every  machine  should  have. 

Different  forms  of  teeth,  the  pitch,  angle,  and  manner 
of  setting,  are  questions  of  much  importance  with  large 
saws  that  run  with  power  feed;  but  for  scroll  cutting, 
slitting,  and  with  narrow  blades  generally,  the  matter  of 
teeth  has  not  such  importance — a  fact  that  is  sufficiently 
proved  by  the  great  diversity  of  both  opinion  and  practice 
met  with. 

For  hand  slitting  saws  from  2  to  2J  inches  are  better 
than  if  wider.  The  perfection  of  manufacture  and  the 
truth  of  the  blades  is  apt  to  be  as  their  width,  and  beyond 
2£  inches  wide  the  steel  is  not,  as  a  rule,  so  good,  or 
the  saws  so  true  and  straight ;  besides,  the  tension  needed 
for  2^-inch  blades  is  as  much  as  an  ordinary  machine 
with  shafts  2J  inches  diameter  will  stand.  There  is  a 
general  tendency  to  use  wide  saws  for  straight  lines,  but 
the  experience  of  the  oldest  and  best  makers,  such  as 
Perin,  of  Paris,  leads  them  to  recommend  narrow  blades. 

The  firm  mentioned  rarely  make  blades  exceeding  3 
inches  in  width,  unless  to  special  order,  and  as  we  can 
hardly  hope  to  wear  out  more  than  an  inch  or  two  of 
width  in  filing,  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  any  use  for  the 
width  beyond  what  will  allow  of  this  wear.  For  slitting, 
the  bench  and  gauge  can  be  of  the  common  form,  the 
bottom  guide  attached  to  the  table  and  the  top  one  carried 
on  an  adjustable  bracket ;  the  speed  can  be  from  5000  to 


126  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

8000  feet  a  minute,  the  wheels  not  less  than  4  feet  in 
diameter,  either  of  wrought  iron  or  of  cast  iron,  bound 
with  wrought-iron  bands,  to  prevent  danger.  Plain  cast- 
iron  wheels  are  not  suitable  for  any  machine,  even  to  run 
at  a  low  speed;  for  if  strong  enough  to  be  safe,  they  must 
at  the  same  time  be  heavy,  which,  for  top  wheels,  throws 
a  great  strain  upon  the  blades  in  starting  the  machine, 
and  also  in  sawing  causes  the  top  wheel  to  overrun  the 
bottom  one  when  the  saw  first  enters  the  wood. 


KESAWING  MACHINES. 

Kesawing  lumber,  the  main  business  in  the  wood  shops 
of  other  countries,  is  but  a  small  affair  in  American  mills. 

Most  planing  mills  have  a  resawing  machine  of  some 
kind,  but  it  is  only  used  to  split  thin  boards  and  cut 
lumber  that  is  too  thin  to  be  sawed  in  the  forest  mills 
and  safely  transported.  In  America  lumber  is  nearly  all 
forest  sawn,  and  conies  to  the  manufacturer  cut  to  size,  as 
near  as  can  be,  allowing  for  warping,  shrinking,  and  irre- 
gularity; not  cut  first  into  deals  or  flitches  for  trans- 
portation, and  then  sawed  again  to  sizes,  as  in  Europe. 
For  this  reason  resawing  machines  are  not  so  important, 
nor  so  well  understood  in  America 

If  we  were  to  argue  the  merits  of  the  two  plans  of 
lumber  traffic,  it  would  be  a  difficult  matter  to  defend  our 
own,  or  to  show  any  reason  for  so  great  a  waste  as  it  occa- 
sions. No  doubt  one  of  the  strongest  reasons  for  the 
present  system  is  the  prejudice  against  resawing  ma- 
chinery. In  considering  resawing,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  a  single  blade  splitting  lumber  of  one  to  two 
inches  thick,  is  a  different  thing  from  a  gang  mill  with 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  127 

from  six  to  twelve  saws  cutting  flitches  or  deals,  and  to 
manufacture  thin  boards  cheaply,  the  gang  saw  must  be 
used. 

Thin  saws  and  slow  feed  are  the  rule  for  English  ma- 
chines ;  the  amount  cut  must  be  increased  by  the  number 
of  blades,  instead  of  crowding  arid  forcing  one  saw  to 
do  three  times  as  much  as  it  should ;  our  American 
system  is  the  reverse  of  all  this  ;  we  try  to,  and  do,  force 
a  single  blade  through  from  2000  to  3000  feet  of  lumber 
in  a  day, — a  thing  incredible  to  people  who  have  not 
seen  it,  and  the  result  is,  as  might  be  expected,  bad 
sawing,  and  a  great  waste  of  both  lumber  and  power. 

It  is  not  expected  to  give  any  useful  information  about 
resawing  mills  such  as  we  have  in  use ;  they  must  soon 
pass  away  under  a  new  lumber  system,  which  enhanced 
prices  are  bringing  about,  and  gang  saws  will  no  doubt  be 
used  for  general  resawing,  and  the  band  saw  or  circular 
gaw  for  single  lines. 

Resawing  deep  stuff  that  is  crooked,  seasoned  and  dry, 
when  fed  by  rollers,  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  sawing, 
and  will  be  the  hardest  kind  to  do  with  band  saws,  as  it 
is  with  all  other  saws;  yet  experiments  thus  far  go  to 
confirm  its  future  success,  and  when  it  is  considered  that 
in  cases  where  resawing  has  been  done  successfully  with 
band  saws,  the  machines  have  in  most  cases  been  small 
and  poorly  made,  it  assures  the  practicability  of  the  thing 
under  more  favourable  conditions. 

A  band  saw  for  resawing  American  lumber  should  never 
exceed  3J  inches  wide,  nor  be  less  than  40  feet  long,  the 
wheels  6  feet  or  more  in  diameter ;  the  speed  of  the  saw 
from  5000  to  8000  feet  a  minute.  The  teeth  require  a 
coarse  pitch,  with  a  deep  throat,  but  of  some  form  to  ensure 
great  stiffness,  otherwise  set  cannot  be  kept  in  them. 


128  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

For  general  resawing  purposes,  there  is  no  saw  better 
than  a  compact  iron-framed  reciprocating  machine,  to 
carry'  from  one  to  ten  saws.  What  may  be  lost  in  speed 
while  working  but  one  saw,  will  be  gained  when  a  gang 
can  be  used;  which  would  soon  be  a  great  share  of  the 
time  when  the  system  of  resawing  was  once  begun.  The 
blades  for  such  machines  need  not  exceed  14  gauge,  and 
in  most  cases  be  thinner. 

Looking,  as  we  may,  to  a  change  in  our  resawing  ma- 
chinery, which  is  at  this  time  open  to  that  fatal  objection 
of  being  too  slow,  there  is  no  need  for  devoting  any  space 
here  to  the  care  and  operation  of  the  ordinary  resawing 
mill,  nor  to  gang  machines  before  we  have  them. 


JIG  SAWS. 

With  respect  to  jig  saws,  the  band  saw  and  duplicating 
machines  have  driven  the  most  of  them  out  of  use,  and  it 
is  to  be  sincerely  hoped  that  further  improvements  will 
do  so  entirely.  What  may  be  said  of  jig  sawing  need 
not  consume  much  space  here.  For  ordinary  wood  work 
a  spring-strained  fret  saw  to  do  the  inside,  or  perforated 
work,  is  all  that  is  needed. 

To  set  up  a  jig  saw,  select  the  strongest  place  in  the 
building,  over  a  girder,  if  on  an  upper  floor;  if  on  a 
ground  floor,  set  it  either  on  masonry  or  piles  set  in  the 
earth  from  three  to  four  feet  deep.  If  the  saw  is  on  an 
upper  floor,  use  a  counter-balance  equal  to  three-fourths 
the  weight  of  the  reciprocating  parts;  this  throws  the 
vibration  on  a  horizontal  plane,  in  which  direction  a  floor 
is  the  strongest  of  all  foundations.  If  set  on  an  earth 
foundation,  use  no  counter-balance,  leaving  the  vibration 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  129 

to  fall  vertically,  and  be  resisted  by  the  foundation.  Never 
drive  jig  saws  at  the  highest  possible  speed ;  the  wear  and 
tear  of  the  machinery  will  more  than  balance  what  is 
gained  in  the  speed  of  sawing. 

In  selecting  men  to  run  jig  saws,  or  any  saw  for  irre- 
gular lines,  two  things  must  be  considered — ingenuity  and 
skill  to  take  care  of  the  machine,  and  the  faculty  of  fol- 
lowing lines.  Without  practical  experience,  and  reason- 
ing from  inference  alone,  we  should  conclude  that  almost 
anyone  could  run  a  jig  saw ;  but  that  it  requires  a 
peculiar  faculty  is  to  the  experienced  a  well-known  fact. 
A  ship  caulker,  a  chipper,  or  a  carpenter,  in  striking  a 
chisel  or  in  driving  nails,  cannot  tell,  or  hardly  knows, 
how  the  blows  of  the  mallet  or  hammer  are  directed  to  the 
head  of  the  chisels  or  the  nails:  in  chipping  and  caulking, 
the  blows  are  continually  varying  from  one  angle  to  an- 
other, apparently  without  effort  or  care.  The  same  faculty 
that  guides  the  hammer  and  mallet,  whatever  it  may  be 
called,  is  needed  in  jig  sawing.  The  sawyer  who  has  this 
faculty  scarcely  knows  how  he  follows  the  lines ;  he  ap- 
pears to  do  so  without  effort,  and  depends,  in  a  large 
degree,  upon  natural  instead  of  acquired  skill.  Occa- 
sionally men,  who  have  great  trouble  in  learning  other 
work,  make  good  sawyers;  some  men  cannot  learn  to 
turn,  others  learn  with  great  facility,  and  a  manager  who 
would  get  the  largest  amount,  of  work  done  in  the  best 
manner,  and  in  a  way  most  congenial  to  the  men  them- 
selves, must  watch  these  peculiarities,  as  they  will  be 
sure  to  appear  among  workmen. 

Saws  for  scroll  work  cut  at  all  angles  of  the  grain, 
and  should  have  what  the  nature  of  the  work  would 
suggest,  an  intermediate  form  of  teeth ;  not  pointed,  as 
for  cross  cutting,  or  square,  as  for  slitting ;  but  a  mean 

K 


130  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

between,  and  always  in  the  hook  form.  A  narrow 
blade  is  not  capable  of  withstanding  back  thrust,  and 
should,  consequently,  be  so  filed  that  the  tendency  will 
be  to  lead  into  the  wood  instead  of  crowding  back.  A 
triangular  file  gives  a  good  shape  for  the  teeth  of  web 
saws,  if  they  are  not  too  deep,  and  the  pitch  not  less  than 
one-fourth  of  an  inch.  Float  files  are  not  so  good  for 
filing  web  saws  as  the  double  cut,  known  as  Stubbs'  files, 
these,  although  they  cost  nearly  twice  as  much,  are  the 
cheapest  in  the  end,  because  of  the  longer  time  they 
will  last.  In  selecting  web  saws,  always  examine  how 
they  have  been  ground  by  the  saw  makers  ;  if  they  have 
been  hand  scotched,  as  it  is  termed,  by  the  grinders,  and 
the  bevel  is  irregular,  they  will  work  badly ;  machine 
grinding  is  the  only  plan  for  producing  a  true  blade,  when 
it  is  narrow,  and  bevelled  back  from  the  teeth. 


PLANING  MACHINERY. 

After  sawing  comes  planing,  and  as  sawing,  except 
cutting  out,  is  in  America  mainly  done  at  the  forest  mills, 
planing  is  the  leading  operation  in  most  varieties  of 
wood  manufacture. 

To  operate  planing  machines  intelligently  and  with 
the  best  result,  one  must  understand  the  general  principles 
of  their  operation,  to  which  we  will  first  call  attention. 

Under  the  general  name  of  planers  are  classed,  first, 
carriage  machines,  in  which  the  lumber  is  moved  in  true 
lines  throughout  its  length  by  guides,  known  as  dimension 
planers,  traversing  planers,  Daniel's  planers. 

Second,  machines  that  reduce  lumber  to  a  uniform 
thickness,  or  thickness  and  width  at  the  same  time,  the 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  131 

stuff  being  fed  by  rolls  and  moved  continuously  between 
stationary  guides  and  the  cutters,  such  machines  known 
as  surfacing  machines,  matching  machines,  and  moulding 
machines. 

Third,  surface  planers,  that  cut  away  a  constant  amount 
of  wood,  gauged  from  the  surface  that  is  planed ;  in  other 
words,  machines  that  have  fixed  pressure  bars,  both  in 
front  and  behind  the  cylinders.  The  under  cylinder  of  a 
double  surfacing  machine,  or  bottom  cylinders  generally, 
are  examples  of  surface  planing. 

These  three  classes  of  machines  and  their  operations 
are  different  in  principle,  and  give  totally  different 
results,  yet  the  distinction  hardly  is  recognized  or 
understood.  Everyone  knows  the  difference  in  the  ma- 
chines, and  can  tell  what  kind  of  machine  is  best  for 
a  certain  class  of  work  ;  but  generally,  from  facts  gathered 
by  experience,  instead  of  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of 
the  principles  of  wood  planing.  There  is,  to  be  sure, 
nothing  intricate  in  this  difference  between  carriage, 
parallel,  and  surface  planing,  yet  it  is  no  uncommon 
thing  to  meet  operators  who  have  not  studied  the  matter. 


CARRIAGE  PLANING. 

All  planing  in  straight  lines  has  to  be  performed  by 
means  of  carriages  on  which  the  lumber  is  moved,  unless 
the  pieces  to  be  planed  have  two  straight  sides  to  guide 
them.  A  carriage  is  nothing  more  than  a  means  of 
supplying  for  the  time  these  two  straight  sides  ;  for  when 
the  piece  to  be  planed  is  fastened  to  the  carriage,  the  two 
are  to  be  considered  as  one  body,  guided  in  two  direc- 
tions, vertically  and  horizontally,  by  the  track  beneath, 

K  2 


132  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

which  supplies  the  straight  sides  the  lumber  itself  lacks. 
To  make  it  more  plain  we  can  say  that  the  lumber  is  not 
gauged  from  and  by  the  side  opposite  to  the  one  being 
planed,  as  in  matching  or  moulding  machines,  but  from 
an  artificial  face,  which  has  been  attached  to  the  piece 
to  guide  it,  consisting  of  the  platen  or  table  and  the 
guides  on  which  the  table  moves.  This  is  the  only 
means  of  planing  true,  and  we  can  hardly  hope  to  see 
any  great  change  from  the  present  plans  for  planing  out 
of  wind.  The  fault  is,  it  is  so  slow  that  continual  expe- 
riments are  being  made  to  do  work  on  roller  feeding 
machines,  only  to  be  done  on  carriage  machines. 

This  want  of  speed  must  be  met  in  some  way,  and  is 
best  remedied  by  using  cross  cylinders  instead  of  travers- 
ing heads.  The  Daniels'  planing  machine,  as  it  is  called 
in  America,  was  invented  in  1802,  by  Bramah,  and  has 
ever  since  held  its  place  as  the  standard  machine  for 
planing  out  of  wind.  It  is  no  doubt  best  for  some 
special  kinds  of  work,  but  is  too  frequently  used ;  three- 
fourths  of  the  planing  performed  on  this  machine 
can  be  as  well  or  better  accomplished,  and  from  two 
to  three  times  as  fast,  with  a  cross  cylinder.  The 
Daniels'  planer,  from  the  nature  of  things,  must  be  slow 
in  its  action;  the  length  of  cutting  edge  that  can  be 
brought  to  act  in  a  given  time  is  the  exponent  of  a 
planer's  capacity,  and  when  we  consider  that  in  machines 
where  the  plane  of  rotation  is  parallel  to  the  face  of  the 
wood  the  length  of  edge  that  can  be  used  is  no  more 
than  the  depth  of  the  cut,  the  wonder  is  that  they  per- 
form so  much. 

A  Daniels'  planer  with  two  cutters  will,  in  ordinary 
work,  use  only  a  half  inch  of  edge  when  taking  a  cut  of 
one-fourth  inch  deep;  a  cross  cylinder  will,  if  it  has 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  133 

three  cutters  20  inches  long,  represent  five  feet  of  edge, 
or  120  times  as  much  as  the  other  machine.  The  work 
performed  of  course  is  not  in  this  ratio,  but  the  actual 
cutting  capacity  is. 

The  result  in  working  is,  that  while  a  24-inch  cylinder 
may  plane  1000  feet  of  surface  without  sharpening  the 
cutters,  a  traverse  head  will  not  plane  ten  feet  without 
the  edges  being  equally  dull,  but  as  they  cut  across  the 
wood  it  can  be  bruised  off  with  edges  that  would  not  cut 
at  all  if  working  parallel  to  the  grain. 

The  secret  of  faster  planing,  we  can  safely  conclude, 
is  not  in  continuous  feed  with  rollers,  which  can  never 
make  true  work,  but  in  increasing  the  capacity  of  car- 
riage machines.  With  a  traversing  cutter-head  the  feed 
is  only  from  10  to  15  feet  a  minute ;  with  a  cylinder  it  can 
be  from  40  to  60  feet  a  minute  on  a  good  strong  ma- 
chine. By  cutting  two  sides  at  once,  which  is  entirely 
practical  on  most  kinds  of  lumber,  and  presuming  that 
the  same  time  is  required  in  running  back,  the  relative 
capacity  is  as  one  to  five  in  favour  of  the  cylinder,  which 
ought  certainly  to  be  satisfactory. 

In  the  arrangement  of  a  wood-working  establishment 
for  purposes  which  require  that  a  part  of  the  planing  be 
true,  and  out  of  wind,  there  is  seldom  any  absolute  need 
of  a  traverse  planing  machine,  and  unless  there  is  such  a 
need  for  one,  it  is  best  to  do  without  it. 

The  beating  down  action  of  the  cylinder,  often  pre- 
sented as  an  argument  against  the  use  of  dimension 
planers  on  thin  lumber,  is  in  practice  not  so  serious  a 
matter  as  it  is  generally  thought  to  be.  A  cylinder  that 
has  its  cutters  sharp,  and  set  at  a  proper  angle,  will 
plane  almost  any  kind  of  stuff  without  springing  it  or 
beating  it  down. 


134  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

Both  in  England  and  France  they  manage  very  well  to 
do  all  kinds  of  planing  on  dimension  planers,  not  only 
framing,  but  flexible  stuff,  which  in  America  is  always 
planed  on  roller  machines. 

There  is  no  question  that  in  the  United  States  too 
great  a  share  of  the  planing  is  on  roller  machines ;  thfe 
little  time  saved  in  planing,  is  generally  lost  in  putting 
the  work  together,  especially  in  cabinet  work,  and  similar 
branches;  and  this  tendency  to  roller  feeding  machines 
is  only  because  of  their  more  speedy  performance. 


PARALLEL  PLANERS. 

This  class  includes  nine-tenths  of  all  the  planers  in  use 
in  this  country,  including  moulding  machines,  which  do 
not  differ  at  all  in  principle  from  what  we  term  planers, 
except  in  capacity,  and  the  arrangements  required  for 
profile  planing.  We  use  the  term  parallel,  because  it 
describes  the  function  of  the  machines,  which  is  to  reduce 
stuff  to  a  uniform  thickness,  straightening  it  in  some 
degree  to  be  sure,  but  not  effectually.  Such  machines 
are  adapted  to  but  one  class  of  work,  stuff  that  can  le  lent 
or  sprung  into  a  straight  line,  as  it  passes  through  the 
machine,  and  keeping  this  in  view,  it  is  easy  to  determine 
what  work  should  be  done  by  parallel  planing  machines. 
The  presumption  is  that  any  kind  of  stuff  that  will  bend 
in  passing  through  the  machine  can  be  afterwards  sprung 
straight  in  putting  it  together.  Flooring,  ceiling,  mould- 
ings,— in  fact,  every  kind  of  stuff  that  is  flexible  enough, 
can,  and  should  be,  planed  on  parallel  planing  machines, 
which  will  plane  two  to  four  sides  at  the  same  time. 

A  four-side  machine,  as  it  is  called,  although  it  planes 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  135 

all  the  sides  of  a  piece,  does  not  do  so  under  the  same 
conditions  on  each  side.  Two  of  the  sides  are  surface 
planed, — that  is,  gauged  from  the  surface  that  runs 
against  the  gauges  and  the  bed ;  the  other  two  are 
planed  parallel,  gauged  -from  the  opposite  side  to  the  one 
being  cut. 

The  lumber  is  guided  by  its  rough  surface  before 
coming  in  contact  with  the  cutters,  and  will  change  the 
position  of  its  irregularities  as  it  passes  through  the  ma- 
chine, but  will  retain  them  all.  By  this  is  meant  that  a 
bend  in  a  piece  too  stiff  to  be  straightened  by  the  rolls 
and  pressure  bars,  will  not  be  in  the  same  place  after 
planing  as  before,  but  advanced  to  a  distance  equal  to 
that  between  the  rolls  or  pressure-bar  and  the  cutters. 
For  this  reason,  among  others,  we  cannot  plane  lumber 
either  square  or  straight  on  a  parallel  planer.  The  top 
and  bottom  cylinder  will  work  parallel,  and  the  vertical 
spindles  may  work  parallel ;  but  as  they  cannot  cut  at 
opposite  points  at  the  same  time,  the  piece  may  change 
its  position  between  the  horizontal  and  vertical  cutters, 
and  be  correspondingly  out  of  square.  Everyone  knows 
this  in  practice,  and  the  discussion  of  it  here  is  not 
expected  to  impart  any  special  information  as  to  how 
the  operation  may  be  changed  or  improved,  but  to  assist 
in  explaining  the  general  principles,  which  must  be  un- 
derstood in  order  to  dictate  or  suggest  the  construction 
of  machines,  and  also  to  determine  proper  plans  of  doing 
work. 

When  a  piece  has  two  straight  sides,  and  is  to  be 
dressed  all  over,  or  one  straight  side,  and  be  dressed 
on  two,  the  work  can,  of  course,  be  sooner  and  better  done 
on  a  parallel  machine ;  so  that  when  machines  of  both 
kinds  are  at  hand,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  lumber  can, 


136  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

after  planing  two  sides  on  the  carriage  machines,  go  to 
the  parallel  machines  to  be  finished,  effecting  a  saving  of 
time,  and  increasing  the  general  capacity  of  the  ma- 
chinery. In  furniture  making,  for  instance,  if  there  is  a 
lot  of  table-tops  to  plane,  the  best  side  can  first  be  planed 
on  the  traverse  or  carriage  machine,  and  the  stuff  be 
then  run  through  the  parallel  machines,  which  saves  time, 
and  produces  true  work. 

Surfacing  machines,  as  they  are  called,  with  an  endless 
chain  bed,  are  commonly  used  for  rough  surfacing  in 
America,  and  if  properly  built  in  a  durable  manner,  they 
do  very  well  for  the  rougher  class  of  work.  Two  changes 
are  needed  in  them,  which  wood  workmen  ought  to 
demand,  and  when  ordering  such,  machines  make  it  a 
specification.  The  bed  and  the  lumber  line  should  be 
fixed,  and  the  cylinder  adjusted  instead ;  there  is  nothing 
more  annoying  than  to  have  the  line  of  the  stuff  changing, 
especially  in  surfacing,  when  the  stuff  should  be  run  out 
of  the  way  by  the  feed ;  besides,  it  is  a  most  unmecha- 
nical  arrangement  to  move  three-fourths  of  the  working 
parts  of  a  machine  in  order  to  have  the  other  fourth  fixed. 

The  other  point  alluded  to  is  the  chains,  which  should 
be  stronger  and  better  made.  The  running  slats  should 
be  chilled  on  the  bottom  side,  and  the  fixed  bars,  or  bed, 
covered  with  tempered  steel — not  soft  steel,  but  hard 
steel.  Without  this  there  is  no  safety  in  operating  these 
machines,  especially  on  heavy  stuff  that  requires  a  strong 
pressure  to  feed.  Surfacing  pine-boards  gives  no  test  of 
one  of  these  machines ;  stiff  timber  framing,  such  as  car 
timber,  put  through  one  for  a  few  hours  is  better. 

In  starting  a  new  machine  of  this  kind,  great  care  is 
needed  for  a  day  or  two  at  the  beginning ;  the  chain  and 
bearing  bars  have  not  then  come  to  a  fit,  and  are  not 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  137 

smooth  and  polished.  The  chain — or  rather,  the  bed — 
should  be  frequently  oiled,  or  plumbago  used  with  the  oil, 
which  can  be  dropped  between  the  slats  while  the  chain 
is  in  motion.  Another  fault  that  is  often  met  with  in 
these  machines,  is  for  the  chain  bed  to  be  narrower  than 
the  cylinder  and  the  rated  capacity  of  the  machine.  This 
is  merely  one  of  those  subterfuges  too  often  adopted  to 
convey  an  erroneous  impression  of  the  capacity  of  ma- 
chines ;  the  Daniels'  planer  is,  for  instance,  generally  rated 
as  planing  to  the  whole  diameter  of  the  cutter-head, 
whereas,  as  anyone  knows,  such  machines  should  have 
their  cutter-heads  at  least  one-fourth  larger  in  diameter 
than  their  rated  width. 

Of  what  we  have  termed  surface  planers  there  need  be 
nothing  said.  With  the  exception  of  the  scraping  planer 
of  B.  D.  Whitney,  there  are  no  machines  of  this  class  in 
general  use.  They  relate,  as  the  name  indicates,  to  pre- 
paring surfaces  ;  and  with  the  progress  that  is  at  this  time 
being  made  in  polishing  machines  for  wood,  we  are  not 
likely  to  see  a  more  extended  use  of  planers  of  this  kind, 
that  have  rotary  cutters. 


ABEASIVE,  OB  POLISHING  MACHINES. 

Sand-paper  is  almost  as  old  as  the  art  of  wood  work- 
ing and  wood  cutting ;  yet  while  we  have  called  in  the 
natural  forces  and  employ  machines  to  effect  the  cutting, 
the  polishing  is  mainly  by  hand.  Power-polishing  ma~ 
chines  are,  it  is  true,  in  common  use  for  some  purposes, 
such  as  finishing  spokes  for  wheels,  and  oval  turned  work 
generally.  Buffing  wheels  for  chair  stuff  are  also  in 
common  use ;  but  the  question  is,  why  stop  here  ?  espe- 


138  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

cially  as  the  application  of  these  power-polishing  appli- 
ances has  been  mainly  to  cylindrical  or  irregular  sur- 
faces, and  is  successful ;  why  not  to  plane  surfaces  as  well  ? 
The  truth  is,  power-polishing  has  not  been  looked  into 
so  closely  or  so  carefully  as  it  might  have  been,  or 
this  hand-rubbing  process  would  be  exceptional.  Abra- 
sive cutting,  we  will  term  it,  need  not  be  confined 
to  smoothing  merely ;  it  is  unquestionably  cheaper  to 
reduce  wood  with  cutters  when  there  is  any  consider^ 
able  amount  to  be  cut  away  ;  but  in  smoothing  off  doors, 
blinds,  and  other  work  that  is  framed  with  the  stuff 
at  angles,  this  grinding  process  is  the  cheapest  one  for 
flushing  the  shoulders,  and  finishing  work  after  it  is  put 
together.  It  combines  the  two  operations  of  planing  off 
and  sand-papering  in  one,  and  is  at  this  time  applied  with 
great  success  in  many  of  the  largest  mills  in  various  parts 
of  the  country.  It  is  regretted  that  the  state  of  the  art 
just  at  this  time  is  such  that  there  is  nothing  to  warrant 
any  more  than  a  brief  notice  of  it,  to  call  attention  to  its 
importance,  and  to  the  probable  saving  which  it  will  effect. 
There  is  no  use  in  writing  about  undeveloped  machinery  in 
America.  It  may  do  in  Europe  to  give  plans,  drawings 
or  dissertations  on  a  machine  one  or  two  years  old ;  but  in 
America  the  whole  thing  may  pass  away  and  be  supplanted 
with  something  else  while  the  description  is  in  the  press. 

The  pneumatic  fans  now  in  general  use  remove  the 
dust,  which  has  no  doubt  been  one  of  the  main  causes  why 
polishing  machines  have  not  been  more  used. 

Experiments  thus  far  have  given  the  best  result  by 
moving  the  grinding  surfaces  in  a  plane  parallel  to  the 
surface  of  the  wood,  like  a  traversing  planer. 

Barker's  machine,  working  on  this  plan,  is  at  present 
extensively  and  successfully  used  for  cleaning  off  doors 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


139 


and  other  joiner  work,  and  in  the  preparation  of  plane 
surfaces  generally,  either  for  painting  or  varnishing.  The 
endurance  of  the  sand-paper,  measured  by  the  amount  of 
surface  gone  over,  is  about  as  five  to  one  contrasted  with 
hand  work,  and  when  estimated  by  the  wood  cut  away, 
not  less  than  as  ten  to  one ;  that  is,  a  superficial  foot  of 
paper  will  cut  away  ten  times  as  much  wood,  if  properly 
used  in  a  machine,  as  it  would  in  ordinary  hand  use  on 
the  same  class  of  work.  It  is  not  assumed  that  the  paper 
will  do  this  much  more  cutting  under  the  same  conditions, 
and  with  equal  care  in  both  cases,  but  including  the  waste 
of  paper  in  hand  use,  which  generally  exceeds  what  is 
utilized. 

Every  wood  workshop,  no  matter  what  the  business 
may  be,  if  the  work  is  to  be  painted  or  varnished,  can  use 
a  set  of  buffing  wheels  to  advantage.  They  do  not  cost 
much,  occupy  but  little  room,  and  can  be  run  by  the 
helpers  at  odd  times  when  there  is  nothing  else  to  do.  It 
will  not  cost  one  cent 
a  foot  to  bun7  lumber, 
and  even  fence  pickets 
will  look  well  enough 
to  pay  for  the  expense. 

To  build  a  buffing 
machine,  construct  a 
frame  about  4x6  feet 
outside  dimensions,  of 
framing  from  4  to  5 
inches  square,  as  shown 
in  Figs.  55  and  56. 
Three  wheels  are 

better  than  two  even  if  but  two  kinds  of  paper  are  re- 
quired; the  two  wheels,  with  the  same  grade,  if  laid  with 


FIG.  55. 


140 


THE    OPERATOR  S   HANDBOOK. 


the  kind  of  paper  used  for  general  purposes,  will  be  worn, 
as  soon  as  the  other,  and  it  will  save  a  large  share 
of  the  time  needed  to  renew  the  paper.  The  wheels 
should  be  from  30  to  40  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  face 
of  8  to  10  inches ;  they  may  be  made  entirely  of  wood, 
but  an  iron  pulley  with  lagging  is  not  only  best  but 
cheapest.  The  frame  should  be  open  on  the  front,  Fig.  56, 
so  as  to  allow  of  free  access  with  crooked  pieces,  and  be 
convenient  for  the  operator.  The  shaft  should  be  not  less 
than  2  inches  diameter,  mounted  as  shown,  to  protect  the 
bearings  and  loose  pulleys,  as  much  as  possible,  from  the 
sand. 

FIG.  56. 


To  prepare  the  wheels,  procure  pulleys  of  30  to  36 
inches  diameter  with  8  inches  face,  the  rims  heavy  and 
turned  true  inside  and  out,  with  two  rows  of  screw-holes, 
drilled  j  inch  from  the  edge,  2  inches  apart,  to  receive 
IJ-inch  No.  16  wood  screws ;  the  holes  well  countersunk 
on  the  inside.  First  put  on  a  layer  of  lag  pieces,  either 
2  or  4  inches  wide,  to  match  the  screw-holes,  making  the 
joints  carefully,  gluing  and  screwing  each  one  as  it  is  put 
on ;  turn  the  wheel  off  true  in  its  place  on  the  machine, 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  141 

and  put  on  a  layer  or  two  of  felt  or  heavy  cloth,  to  make 
a  cushion  for  the  paper ;  next  prepare  a  strip  of  strong 
canvas  two  inches  wider  than  the  face  of  the  wheel,  and 
long  enough  to  go  around  it,  or  half  around  it,  as  the  case 
may  be,  notch  the  edges,  as  at  Fig,  57,  so  that  they  will 
lap  over  the  ends  of  the  pulley, 
to  be  fastened  with  tacks.     After 
putting  on  the  canvas,  a  good  plan 
is  to  add  a  layer  of  plain  manilla 
paper  without  sand,  and  after  it 
dries,  lay  the  sand-paper  on  the 
outside,  using  thick  strong  glue; 

let  the  wheels  dry  thoroughly  before  using  them,  and 
when  worn  smooth,  put  a  new  layer  on  top  of  the  former 
one,  and  continue  until  the  wheel  becomes  uneven  and 
irregular,  then  by  drawing  the  tacks  that  hold  the  canvas, 
and  cutting  the  paper  across  opposite  the  joint,  the  whole 
covering  is  stripped  off,  leaving  the  felt  or  cloth  cushions 
intact.  The  canvas  can  then  be  placed  in  water  until  the 
sand-paper  is  soaked  off,  and  again  put  on  the  wheel  to 
begin  another  set  of  coverings. 

It  should  have  been  mentioned  that  the  felt  covering 
can  be  nailed  on  with  small  copper  tacks,  and  that  in 
applying  the  canvas,  a  strip  of  paper  rubbed  with  beeswax 
laid  under  the  joints  in  the  canvas  will  prevent  adhesion 
from  any  glue  that  may  go  through. 

The  whole  body  of  the  machine  frame  may  be  encased 
to  confine  the  dust,  and  exhausted  by  the  induction  fan, 
hoods  being  placed  at  the  back  of  the  wheels  to  gather 
the  dust,  as  seen  in  Fig.  56. 

In  building  a  machine  of  this  kind  it  is  well  to  add  a 
common  pulley  at  the  end  opposite  the  driving  pulleys,  to 
operate  sand  or  wax  belts,  for  polishing  perforated  work  or 


142  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

such  pieces  as  cannot  be  applied  on  the  wheels ;  this  extra 
pulley  and  an  idle  pulley  set  on  the  floor,  with  a  few 
canvas  belts,  comprises  the  arrangement,  which  is  often 
of  great  convenience,  especially  in  chair  and  cabinet  work. 


JOBBING  AND  SHAPING  MACHINES. 

The  term  shaping,  as  applied  in  wood  manufacture, 
comprehends  all  work  in  irregular  lines ;  a  better  dis- 
tinction would  be  to  call  all  operations  shaping,  when  the 
stuff  is  fed  by  hand.  This  would  include  the  many  impro- 
vised plans  of  doing  special  work,  that  cost  so  little,  and 
save  so  much,  nearly  all  of  which  are  performed  by  hand 
feed. 

Speaking  of  hand  feed,  it  is  apparent  that  in  the  great 
race  for  automatic  machinery,  wood  manufacturers  have 
gone  far  beyond  the  true  limit  in  the  use  of  power 
feed,  and  have  applied  power  feed  in  many  cases  when 
the  work  could  be  fed  to  the  cutters  by  hand,  and 
advantages  gained  both  in  the  quality  and  cost  of  the 
work. 

To  feed  lumber  to  cutters  at  a  uniform  speed,  regard- 
less of  the  state  of  the  edges,  the  grain  of  the  wood,  or 
knots,  is  a  most  unnatural  plan,  and  can  only  be  con- 
sidered as  adapted  to  the  coarser  kinds  of  work ;  besides, 
to  secure  the  smoothest  and  best  work,  the  wood  should 
pass  over  the  top  of  the  cutter-heads,  as  in  hand-feeding 
machines,  and  not  beneath  them.  This  last  proposition 
would  seem  to  be  but  a  question  of  relative  position 
between  the  cutter-head  and  the  wood,  but  it  is  some- 
thing quite  different.  When  material  is  passed  over  the 
cutters,  the  amount  cut  away  is  usually  gauged  from  the 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  143 

side  acted  upon,  arid  the  machine  becomes  a  surface 
planer  instead  of  a  parallel  planer,  as  explained  in  an- 
other place. 

Hand  feed,  contrasted  with  power  feed,  must  not  there- 
fore be  regarded  as  meaning  two  ways  of  performing  the 
same  thing,  but  as  two  classes  of  planing,  involving 
different  principles.  This  distinction  is,  however,  not  the 
most  important  one  between  a  power-feeding  and  a  hand- 
feeding  machine.  The  main  difference  practically  is  that 
when  arranged  with  feeding  mechanism,  a  machine  is 
adapted  only  to  some  standard  kind  of  work,  such  as 
parallel  planing,  moulding,  or  grooving,  will  receive  stuff 
only  within  certain  dimensions,  and  must  be  set  and  ad- 
justed every  time  the  dimensions  of  the  lumber  are 
changed.  Besides,  in  such  machines  the  feed  is  uniform, 
regardless  of  the  varying  amount  that  is  cut  away,  the 
nature  of  the  wood,  or  the  starting,  which  should  be  done 
slowly. 

A  machine  that  is  arranged  to  be  fed  by  hand  is  the 
opposite  of  all  this ;  it  will  receive  stuff  of  any  size,  will 
cut  away  any  amount  of  wood,  because  the  feed  can  be 
graduated  to  suit,  and  is  convertible  into  a  general  shaping 
and  jobbing  machine,  applicable  to  almost  anything  within 
the  whole  range  of  wood  cutting. 

There  is  nothing  about  wood  manufacture  that  needs 
to  be  more  carefully  studied  than  this  matter  of  machine 
adaptation ;  a  successful  business  is  always  marked  by 
more  or  less  original  practice  and  an  adaptation  of  means 
to  ends,  that  we  may  class  under  a  general  head  of  ways 
and  means  of  doing  odd  jobs. 

Ten  years  ago  it  was  most  unusual  to  find  a  hand- 
feeding  machine  in  an  American  wood  shop;  whenever 
the  power-feeding  machines  failed  to  do  what  was  re- 


144  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

quired,  the  next  resort  was  hand  labour;  but  of  late 
years,  from  experience  and  necessity,  there  has  been  a 
return  to  first  principles,  by  the  use  of  hand-feeding 
machines  for  jobbing,  and  they  are  to  be  found  at  this 
time  in  most  large  establishments. 

A  singular  thing  about  their  use,  and  one  that  argues 
how  little  the  principles  of  wood  cutting  are  studied,  is 
that  such  machines  have  been  sold  mainly  upon  trial,  and 
only  bought  after  they  had  demonstrated  their  utility. 
Manufacturers  had  no  confidence  in  a  machine,  the  merit 
of  which  was  predicated  upon  theoretical  grounds,  and 
appeared  like  a  discarded  thing  of  the  past. 

One  reason  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  common  im- 
pression that  a  hand-feeding  machine  requires  a  man's 
time  to  run  it,  and  that  a  power-feeding  machine  does 
not,  a  mistake  which  is  easily  seen  when  considered ;  in 
fact,  in  many  cases,  hand  feed  requires  no  more  attention, 
and  is  the  faster  plan  of  the  two,  as  bench  sawing  will 
serve  to  illustrate. 

Hand-feed  machines  have  been  mainly  introduced  under 
the  name  of  universal  machines,  and  a  common  impression 
exists  that  their  value  is  due  to  a  combination  of  several 
functions,  such  as  planing,  boring,  and  sawing;  but  a 
careful  investigation  of  their  use  will  prove  their  value  to 
be  in  the  adaptability  gained  by  dispensing  with  the 
power-feeding  mechanism. 

A  planing,  moulding,  and  general  jobbing  machine, 
arranged  as  in  Fig.  58,  with  an  overhung  spindle  to 
receive  various  cutter-heads,  having  a  compound  table  in 
two  parts  with  independent  adjustment,  is  one  of  the 
most  useful  of  hand-feed  machines.  The  tables  a,  a  are 
mounted  on  movable  brackets,  c,  c,  which  are  raised  or 
lowered  to  suit  the  diameter  of  the  cutter-heads,  and  the 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


<fN>  T/2&       '" 

145 


amount  of  ,wood  to  be  cut  away.     The  rear  table  is  ad- 
justed to  meet  the  face  after  it  is  planed,  and  varies  from 


FIG.  58. 


the  line  of  the  front  one,  as  the  depth  of  the  cut.  The 
figure  merely  conveys  an  idea  of  the  general  functions 
of  a  machine  which  can  be  applied  to  a  hundred  uses, 
and  will  generally  have  something  to  do  in  the  way  of 
shaping,  moulding,  grooving,  matching,  raising  panels, 
rebating,  or  other  work. 

Such  a  machine  corresponds  very  nearly  to  the  original 
plans  for  wood-planing  machines ;  a  machine  for  moulding 
and  planing  very  nearly  in  this  form  was  introduced  in 
America  in  1835,  but  soon  gave  way  to  power-feeding 
improvements,  which  were  capable  of  performing  all  that 
was  needed  at  that  day,  and  when  modern  work  demands 
hand-feed  machines,  it  is  hard  to  realize  that  we  must  go 
back  to  the  discarded  machines  of  forty  years  ago. 

Shaping  machines,  with  two  vertical  spindles,  have  now 
become  standard  machines  in  American  shops ;  and  we 
often  hear  the  true  remark  that  they  "  will  do  almost 
anything."  When  we  come  'to  consider  why  they  have 


146  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

such  a  range  of  adaptation,  it  will  be  found  substantially 
in  the  principles  that  have  been  already  pointed  out — 
hand  fed,  surface  and  gauging. 

This  machine,  although  comprehended  in  the  British 
patent  of  Bentham,  1793,  and  that  of  Boyd,  1822,  was, 
like  many  others,  a  long  time  in  being  developed,  which 
only  proves  that  wood-machine  improvement  is  not  a  ques- 
tion of  ingenuity  in  machine  making  but  a  sequence  of 
improvements  in  wood  conversion. 

Whenever  a  process  is  invented  by  the  wood-machine 
operators,  we  soon  have  machines  to  perform  it,  and  there 
is  no  greater  mistake  than  to  ascribe  the  progress  of  wood 
manufacture  to  machine  improvement ;  it  is  just  the  oppo- 
site, machine  progress  conies  almost  entirely  from  im- 
provements in  shop  manipulation,  and  from  the  wood 
workmen  themselves.  This  matter  is  mentioned  with  a 
view  to  directing  the  attention  of  operators  to  processes 
instead  of  machines ;  they  must  invent  plans  of  perform- 
ing work,  after  which  it  is  easy  to  adapt  machines  to  the 
purpose.  In  the  case  of  the  jobbing  machine  alluded  to, 
for  instance,  if  we  have  the  premises  or  principles  to  begin 
with,  and  know  what  kind  of  work  can  be  done  in  a  special 
manner  by  a  machine,  it  is  then  an  easy  matter  to  gene- 
rate the  necessary  mechanism.  To  illustrate  this  matter 
of  processes  further :  if  there  is  a  set  of  lagging  to  make 
for  a  drum  or  pulley ;  in  some  shops  it  will  be  worked  out 
by  hand  with  cove  planes,  involving  no  little  time  and 
cost,  besides  making  a  poor  job.  In  another  shop,  the 
lags  or  staves  will  be  run  across  the  top  of  a  circular  saw, 
and  cut  out  true  in  a  few  minutes'  time.  This  last  is  what 
is  meant  by  expedients  to  facilitate  and  perfect  machine 
work.  A  machine  like  the  one  shown  at  Fig.  58  is  of 
very  simple  construction ;  but  an  ingenious  workman  who 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  147 

understands  its  operation  will  soon  prepare  a  set  of  guides, 
gauges,  and  stops  to  do  all  kinds  of  jobs,  even  to  working 
curved  lines ;  and  this  outfit  requires  more  ingenuity  to 
invent  than  the  machine  proper. 

Since  the  introduction  of  emery  wheels  for  grinding 
cutters,  the  objections  to  those  of  solid  steel  are  overcome, 
and  a  solid  steel  cutter,  hardened  throughout,  is  sooner 
ground  in  this  way,  than  an  iron  one  steel  laid ;  and  when 
it  is  considered  that  those  of  solid  steel  may  be  one-third 
thinner  and  yet  as  rigid,  it  becomes  an  argument  in  their 
favour.  It  is  not  recommended,  however,  that  the  extra 
thickness  be  omitted  when  they  are  made  of  solid  steel, 
because  shaping  cutters  are  nearly  always  made  too  thin. 
When  there  is  the  least  spring  in  them  they  are  liable 
to  break,  snatch  the  piece  from  the  workman,  or,  what 
is  worse,  take  his  hand  into  the  cutters  with  it. 

When  a  number  of  these  cutters  are  needed  for  shaping 
machines,  and  when  they  are  held  by  angular  grooves  at 
the  ends  in  the  usual  manner,  it  will  be  found  a  good  plan 
to  procure  several  bars  of  the  best  cast  steel,  J  x  1  in., 
J  x  Hin.,  A  X  IJ-in.,  A  x  lfin.,|  x  2  in.,  and  |  x  2Jin., 
in  such  proportion  as  the  nature  of  the  work  may  require ; 
cut  these  bars  up  into  lengths  of  about  2  feet  each,  and 
send  them  to  a  machine  shop  to  have  their  edges  jointed 
and  bevelled  by  a  planing  machine.  This  will  cost  but  a 
trifle,  and  ensure  the  uniform  width  of  the  cutters,  without 
which  no  machine  can  work  well,  as  the  spindle  is  bent  to 
meet  any  variation  of  width  between  the  cutters  forming 
pairs. 

The  cutters  can  be  cut  from  the  bars,  shaped  and 
tempered  as  needed.  If  there  is  a  very  irregular  outline 
to  make,  it  saves  time  to  drill  holes,  and  break  out  a  part 
of  the  steel  in  the  deepest  places,  or  it  can  be  cut  out 

L  2 


148 


THE   OPEEATOES   HANDBOOK. 


FIG.  59. 


at  a  forge  fire  without  deranging  the  shape  of  the  cutter, 
if  care  is  used.  When  there  is  much  grinding  and 
it  is  to  be  done  on  emery  wheels,  harden  the  cutter 
before  it  is  ground ;  but  do  not  draw  the  temper  until 
after  it  is.  shaped,  it  will  then  be  clean  and  bright,  to 
show  the  shades  of  temper.  If  solid  steel  cutters  of  any 
depth,  say  more  than  3J-  inches,  are  used,  it  is  best  to 
slot  them  in  the  centre,  and  put  a  block  between  with 
clamping  screws,  as  in  Fig.  59.  It  may  not  be  needed 
with  ordinary  work,  but  always  where  there 
is  danger  of  splinters  raising,  or  pieces  pull- 
ing out,  that  may  break  solid  steel  cutters. 
It  is  safest  in  shaping  to  keep  the 
material  as  much  as  possible  between  your 
person  and  the  cutters.  This  is  the  natural 
position ;  but  when  fulcrum  pins  are  em- 
ployed to  hold  the  forms  against  the  cutter- 
heads,  the  operator  can  in  many  cases  be 
shielded  behind  the  piece,  or  stand  exposed 
as  he  may  choose. 

In  arranging  shaping  machines,  always 
drive  them  at  as  high  a  speed  as  the 
spindles  and  bearings  will  stand.  The 
small  diameter  of  the  heads  requires  this  to  attain  any- 
thing like  a  standard  speed  with  the  cutting  edges, 
besides,  it  ensures  greater  safety  to  the  operator;  the 
weight  and  inertia  of  a  piece  will  often  prevent  it  from 
catching  at  a  high  speed,  when  it  would  be  drawn  in  at 
a  slow  one.  A  set  of  spindles  properly  fitted  should  run 
at  least  4500  revolutions  a  minute,  which  with  heads  2^ 
inches  diameter  gives  a  cutting  movement  of  less  than 
3000  feet  a  minute,  much  slower  than  with  most  other 
machines. 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  149 

The  step-bearings  for  these  machines  should  be  as  long 
and  nearly  as  large  in  diameter  as  the  top  bearings,  and 
arranged  to  be  flooded  with  oil.  Small  tempered  steel 
points  will  always  give  trouble,  and  have  long  ago,  for  all 
kinds  of  machinery,  been  abandoned  by  the  best  makers. 

Have  no  balance  wheels  on  the  spindles,  they  only  add 
useless  weight  on  the  steps,  which  have  enough  to  carry 
without  them.  The  need  for  them  on  the  spindles  oi 
shaping  machines  is  about  the  same  as  on  the  grindstone 
shaft,  and  they  can  be  as  well  dispensed  with  in  one  case 
as  the  other. 

Set  the  countershaft  10  feet  from  the  spindles  when 
there  is  room,  or  if  nearer  have  the  pulleys  on  it  smaller 
in  proportion ;  they  should  not  in  any  case  exceed  five 
times  the  diameters  of  those  on  the  spindles,  unless  set 
10  feet  or  more  distant. 


MORTISING. 

It  was  remarked  of  jig  saws  that  they  should  only  be 
used  when  no  other  machine  could  be  employed  for  the 
work.  It  will  not  be  far  wrong,  and  for  similar  reasons, 
to  say  the  same  in  reference  to  reciprocating  mortising 
machines. 

In  no  other  country  except  America  have  reciprocating 
machines  been  applied  to  all  kinds  of  mortising,  and  there 
is  nothing  strange  in  the  reaction  we  now  see  going  on  by 
the  return  to  rotary  machines  for  car  building  and  other 
heavy  work.  It  is  hard  to  tell  which  deserves  the  greater 
credit,  the  ingenuity  and  care  that  has  kept  the  recipro- 
cating machines  in  working  order,  or  the  forbearance  that 
suffers  their  jar,  rattle,  and  derangement.  All  recipro- 


150  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

eating  machines,  no  matter  what  their  character,  if  run  at 
a  high  speed  are  open  to  serious  objections — from  wear, 
breaking,  jar,  and  vibration — but  when  we  add  a  kind 
of  duty  that  consists  in  heavy  blows,  like  mortising,  it 
amounts  to  a  culmination  of  these  troubles,  and  explains 
why  the  mortiser  in  a  wood  shop  is  generally  out  of 
order  and  requires  more  repairs  than  all  the  rest  of  the 
machines. 

As  before  remarked,  it  is  not  our  intention  to  treat  of 
the  principles  of  machine  construction  further  than  to  give 
useful  hints  as  to  the  care  and  operation  of  machines, 
but  there  is  nothing  that  will  teach  the  care  and  opera- 
tion of  machines  so  well  as  to  understand  the  principles 
and  the  general  theory  of  their  action.  It  must  also 
be  admitted  that  as  engineers  and  machinists  as  a  rule 
know  but  little  of  wood- working  machines,  improvements 
and  changes  must  be  suggested  mainly  by  wood  workmen 
themselves. 

We  therefore  suggest  a  thorough  investigation  of  this 
mortising  question  to  see  whether  the  reciprocating  mor- 
tising machine  has  not  been  applied  to  many  kinds  of 
work  which  could  have  been  as  well  or  better  done  by 
rotary  machines.  All  the  mortising  in  France,  and  the 
greater  part  in  England,  is  performed  by  rotary  machines, 
that  cut  clean  true  mortises  without  vibration  or  noise, 
the  question  arises,  suppose  it  takes  a  little  longer  to  cut 
a  mortise,  it  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  operation  in  making 
up  work,  there  are  no  breakdowns  to  hinder  and  derange 
other  things,  the  work  is  better  done,  the  tools  are  not  half 
so  expensive,  and  finally  is  it  not  worth  a  great  deal  to  get 
rid  of  the  clashing  and  banging  of  a  reciprocating  machine, 
as  a  matter  of  order  and  comfort  about  the  works  ?  But 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  151 

even  this  argument  need  not  be  used  alone,  for  some  car 
builders  from  careful  statistics  prove  that  rotary  mortising 
machines  effect  a  saving  of  time  in  the  end,  from  the  better 
facilities  they  afford  in  presenting  and  handling  long  or 
heavy  lumber. 

There  is  perhaps  no  question  about  the  claims  of  recipro- 
cating machines  for  light  work,  and  for  chisels  to  f  in. 
wide,  or  for  pieces  that  are  not  too  heavy  to  be  fed  to  the 
chisel.  In  these  machines  there  is  none  of  the  very 
objectional  mechanism  needed  for  a  chisel  bar  feed,  and 
the  machines  are  quite  simple  throughout.  The  recipro- 
cating parts  can  be  light  and  the  crank  shaft  can  be 
placed  in  the  base  of  the  machine,  to  avoid  overhead 
connections  and  prevent  jar  upon  a  building. 

Machines  of  this  kind  are  suitable  for  joiner  work, 
cabinet  work,  and  the  lighter  kinds  of  mortising  generally, 
except  for  chairs;  all  other  mortising  should  be  done  on 
rotary  machines. 

In  making  comparisons  between  reciprocating  and 
rotary  mortising  machines  we  have  to  consider — first,  the 
time  required  to  perform  the  work  ;  second,  the  character 
of  the  work  when  done ;  third,  the  skill  needed  to  perform 
it ;  fourth,  cost  of  tools  and  repairs  of  machinery,  including 
detention  by  its  derangement;  or,  briefly,  time,  quality, 
skill,  and  repairs. 

To  first  consider  time,  it  must  in  the  case  of  recipro- 
cating machines  include  the  cleaning  out  of  mortises  after 
they  are  beat  down,  as  it  is  termed,  and  unless  the  ope- 
rator is  specially  skilled  in  the  proper  form  of  chisels, 
this  cleaning  out  often  equals  the  mortising.  With  rotary 
machines  the  mortises  are  clear,  but  require  in  most  cases 
squaring  at  the  ends,  a  work  hardly  fair  to  balance  against 


152  THE  OPEEATOE'S  HANDBOOK. 

the  cleaning  out  in  the  other  case,  for  it  requires  less 
time  and  no  more  skill.  If  a  mortise  is  made  in  soft  wood 
and  without  boring,  it  will  be  made  in  less  time  on  a  high 
speed  reciprocating  machine,  but  if  there  has  to  be  a  hole 
bored  for  starting,  the  mortise  will  be  soonest  made  by  a 
rotary  machine,  which  amounts  practically  to  the  former 
proposition,  that  small  mortises  in  light  work  are  soonest 
made  by  the  reciprocating  machines,  and  heavy  work  by 
rotary  machines.  Presuming  that  rotary  machines  had 
been  as  long  and  generally  used  in  America  as  those  with 
reciprocal  motion,  the  test  of  time  would  perhaps  be  in 
their  favour,  taking  the  general  range  of  work  to  judge 
from. 

The  question  of  quality  need  hardly  be  considered,  mor- 
tises made  by  either  plan  are  good  enough. 

In  the  matter  of  skill  all  is  in  favour  of  the  rotary 
machine ;  those  with  reciprocating  motion  need  not  only 
as  much  care  and  skill  to  keep  up  the  cutting  tools,  but  a 
great  deal  more  to  keep  up  the  machines,  which  are  with 
the  best  care  usually  out  of  order.  They  are  besides 
laborious  to  work,  not  only  in  the  exertion  needed  to 
feed,  but  the  jarring  communicated  to  the  foot  is  dis- 
agreeable, and  often  injurious  in  heavy  work. 

Of  repairs,  breakage,  and  detention,  they  are  as  the 
difference  between  reciprocating  and  rotary  motion  which 
expresses  all  that  could  be  said. 

In  the  selection  of  machines  and  the  arrangement  of 
shops  let  this  matter  be  carefully  canvassed,  and  whenever 
there  are  any  doubts  as  to  the  plan  of  mortising  to  be 
adopted  decide  in  favour  of  rotary  machines,  for  heavy 
work  at  least.  They  will  not  only  perform  the  work,  but 
do  it  well,  and  when  not  needed  for  mortising  can  be  used 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  153 

for  boring,  recessing,  gaming,  or  other  work  at  times  when 
a  reciprocating  machine  would  be  idle.  For  the  lighter 
class  of  work  when  a  movable  table  machine  can  be  used, 
the  reciprocating  machine  is  best,  and  will  probably  remain 
so,  but  whenever  the  work  requires  a  machine  with  chisel 
bar  feed,  the  case  is  different.  Kotary  machines  are  not 
used  in  America  at  this  time,  except  a  large  size  for  car 
builders,  but  soon  would  be,  if  introduced,  and  many 
improvements  be  added  in  adapting  them  to  general 
purposes.  The  length  and  position  of  the  mortises  being 
gauged  by  stops  in  the  rotary  mortising  machine,  it  is 
possible  that  with  some  convenient  system  of  gauges,  no 
laying  out  would  be  needed  on  any  kind  of  work.  This 
is  one  of  the  advantages  that  has  called  the  attention  of' 
car  builders  to  these  machines,  and  which  is  no  small 
matter  when  we  consider  both  the  time  and  the  mistakes 
saved ;  a  stop  system  is  necessarily  a  check  system  at  the 
same  time,  and  prevents  mistakes.  Speaking  of  there 
being  but  few  rotary  mortising  machines  in  use  in  this 
country,  we  must  except  what  are  generally  called  chair 
mortisers,  a  kind  of  rotary  machine  that  deserves  a  more 
extended  use  than  it  has  at  this  time.  The  rule  has  been 
to  use  these  machines  on  round  or  crooked  stuff  which 
could  not  be  held  firm  enough  to  withstand  the  blows  of 
reciprocating  machines ;  they  never  fail  to  do  all  that  is 
required,  and  do  it  well,  without  much  repairing  or  at- 
tention. These  machines  are  made  in  Ohio,  and  other 
places  in  the  West,  in  a  simple,  compact  form,  and  at  a 
low  price  ;  those  made  in  New  England  for  chairwork  are 
more  complicated  and  slow  to  operate,  having  generally 
vertical  spindles,  cutting  downward,  so  that  the  chips 
remain  in  the  mortise,  and  in  some  cases  the  vibratory 


154 

motion  has  to  be  stopped  when  pieces  are  put  into  the 
machine.  The  spindles  of  these  machines  should  stand 
either  horizontally  or  vertically  beneath  the  work,  and 
rim  at  a  speed  of  6000  to  7500  revolutions  a  minute, 
the  vibratory  motion  may  be  from  200  to  400  a  minute ; 
the  cutters  or  bits  should  be  made  from  Stubbs'  steel, 
drawn  polished  rods  of  the  finest  grade  and  used  without 
tempering.  The  spindles  should  be  bored  deep  enough 
to  receive  from  8  to  12  inches  of  the  rods,  so  that  there 
will  be  no  waste  except  the  wear,  and  that  the  cutter  may 
be  set  out  more  or  less,  as  the  depth  of  the  mortises  may 
require. 

The  bits  should  be  held  by  a  conical  split  thimble  fitting 
into  the  end  of  the  spindle;  set  screws  are  unfit  for  the 
purpose;  they  are  often  in  the  way  when  mortising  on 
angles,  and  are  liable  to  catch  in  the  clothing. 

The  chuck-end  of  a  spindle  is  shown  in  section,  Fig.  60, 

FIG.  60. 


a  good  device  for  any  kind  of  rotary  tools,  where  the 
torsional  strain  is  not  too  great  to  be  sustained  by  friction 
alone. 

The  chisels  for  reciprocating  mortise  machines  have 
much  to  do  with  their  performance ;  a  chisel  that  is  true 
and  of  a  form  that  loosens  the  chips  and  throws  the  greater 
part  of  them  out  of  the  mortise,  works  easy,  does  not  lift 
the  piece  on  the  up-stroke,  or  jar  the  machine. 

Chisels  should  be  tapered  slightly  on  their  sides  and 
backs,  and  the  only  plan  to  get  them  true  is  to  plane  or 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


155 


mill  them  from  the  shank  after  it  is  turned ;  this  is  easily 
done,  and  is  the  cheapest  plan  after  the  chuck  or  holder 
has  been  prepared. 

Fig.  61  is  a  chuck  for  planing  or  milling  these  chisels, 
consisting  of  a  revolving  shell  or  holder,  a,  with  a  socket 


FIG.  61. 


to  receive  the  chisel  shank,  and  four  stops,  e.  The  base  of 
the  chuck  is  planed  to  the  taper  needed  on  the  sides  and 
back  of  the  chisels,  and  arranged  to  fit  on  a  planing  or 
milling  machine.  To  set  the  chisel  the  clamp-piece  e  is 
loosed,  the  chuck  revolved  one-fourth,  and  then  again 
fastened. 

Mortising  chisels  should  have  a  filing  temper  deep  blue 
or  tinged  with  violet  colour,  and  be  made  of  the  best  steel 
only.  To  sharpen  them  a  thin  emery  wheel  can  be  used 
for  the  throat  instead  of  files,  in  which  case,  however,  the 
temper  should  be  no  harder  than  described,  or  they  will  be 
liable  to  break.  The  jaws  or  ribs  at  the  sides  of  the  chisels 
are  generally  made  too  thin ;  it  is  as  well  for  all  chisels 
more  than  |  in.  wide  to  have  lips  one-fourth  the  width 
of  the  chisel.  Their  purpose  is  to  divide  the  chip  into 
three  parts  and  loosen  it  in  the  mortise,  and  the  central 
part,  or  throat,  aside  from  inconvenience  of  sharpening, 
need  be  no  wider  than  the  jaws  themselves. 


156  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 


TENONING. 

Machines  for  cutting  tenons  are  so  well  understood,  and 
have  been  so  little  changed  in  a  long  time,  that  they  are 
perhaps  the  most  successfully  built  and  operated  of  all 
wood  machines.  Those  with  a  fixed  table  and  the  cutting 
movement  given  to  the  spindles  are  slowly  coming  into 
use  for  the  heavier  class  of  work,  especially  when  the 
tenons  are  double.  With  this  exception,  the  American 
tenoning  machines  have  remained  about  the  same  for 
twenty  years  past.  Improvements  have  been  made  in  the 
cutters,  the  machines  have  been  improved  in  strength  and 
workmanship,  and  by  the  change  from  wood  to  iron  fram- 
ing, the  manner  of  adjusting  the  heads  has  also  been  im- 
proved and  simplified ;  but  for  light  work  an  old  machine 
is  as  good  as  a  new  one,  which  can  be  said  of  but  few  other 
machines.  There  are  some  things,  notwithstanding  these 
facts,  that  need  improvement,  which  any  experienced  wood 
workman  will  appreciate  when  pointed  out.  The  shoulders 
of  the  tenon,  for  instance,  are  squared  from  opposite  sides 
of  the  piece  by  reversing  it,  when  it  is  tenoned  at  both 
ends,  and  it  must  be  both  parallel  and  straight  to  bring 
true  work ;  it  amounts  to  the  same  thing  as  using  the  try 
square  on  two  different  sides  of  a  piece  in  scribing  shoulders, 
which  would  not  be  thought  of  by  a  bench  workman.  For 
this  we  have  the  remedy  of  tenoning  both  ends  at  the  same 
time,  which  not  only  evades  this  trouble  of  squaring  the 
shoulders,  but  saves  a  great  share  of  the  time  and  labour- 
It  also  ensures  accurate  and  uniform  lengths  between 
shoulders,  a  matter  of  no  small  importance  in  tenoning. 
This  plan  of  tenoning  both  ends  at  one  operation  has  gone 
into  practice  in  Chicago,  where  it  has  met  with  great  sue- 


157 

cess,  and  deserves  to  be  generally  adopted  in  door  and 
sash  work. 

Some  of  the  joiners'  shops  in  Sweden  and  Norway  employ 
the  same  plan,  and  machines  of  this  kind  have  been  made 
in  England. 

Another  improvement  is  needed  in  the  carriages.  They 
are  made  to  run  on  slides,  and  to  move  them  backward 
and  forward  is  the  main  labour  in  operating  a  tenoning 
machine ;  it  is  not  only  hard  work,  but  consumes  time,  and 
hinders  the  operator  from  holding  the  stuff,  which  is  nearly 
all  he  can  perform  with  his  hands.  The  carriages  should 
in  all  cases  move  on  rollers,  no  matter  how  small  the  ma- 
chine ;  it  is  of  course  more  important  for  heavy  work,  and 
on  the  larger  machines,  but  in  any  case  it  allows  the 
operator  to  feel  the  action  of  the  cutters  more  sensitively, 
and  saves  time.  The  argument  has  been  in  this  matter, 
that  a  carriage,  if  mounted  on  rollers,  could  not  be  kept 
true  and  square.  Without  discussing  the  subject  from  a 
mechanical  point  of  view,  it  is  suggested  that  a  maker  who 
cannot  produce  a  tenoning  carriage  to  move  true  and 
square  on  rollers  had  better  leave  the  work  to  be  done  by 
those  who  can.  The  old  wooden  carriages  are  so  light, 
and  slide  so  easily  in  doing  light  work,  that  they  do  very 
well  without  roller  bearings ;  but,  as  now  made  of  iron,  a 
carriage  strong  enough  to  stand  the  rough  use  to  which 
it  is  subjected,  is  too  heavy  to  move  on  slides.  Carriages 
when  mounted  in  this  way  start  heavy  and  bring  the  wood 
in  contact  with  the  cutters  in  an  abrupt  manner  that 
shivers  the  corners  in  starting.  The  pressure  needed  to 
move  the  carriage  is  so  great  that  the  cutting  is  not  felt, 
and,  as  remarked  before,  the  main  work  in  operating  is  to 
move  the  carriage  backward  and  forward. 


158  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

Tenoning  cutters,  with  all  others  that  act  transversely  to 
the  grain,  should  be  as  thin,  and  stand  at  an  angle  as  acute 
as  possible.  The  tenons  depend  for  accuracy  upon  the 
edges  being  straight  and  true,  which  requires  precision 
in  grinding  and  sharpening  them,  or  rather  in  jointing 
them,  which  should  be  done  when  on  the  head  at  first,  and 
then  a  gauge  prepared  that  will  indicate  the  true  angle 
for  the  edges:  most  makers  send  out  such  gauges  with 
their  machines,  but  they  nearly  always  need  a  readjust- 
ment by  the  operator,  who  can  test  them  by  careful 
experiments  which  the  machinist  has  not  facilities  to  do. 


WOOD  TURNING. 

The  *  Turners'  Companion,'  with  other  treatises  on  the 
subject,  generally  relate  to  fancy  engine  turning  for  orna- 
mentation, and  are  intended  mainly  for  amateurs,  or  at 
least  do  not  apply  to  what  is  needed  in  a  wood-working 
establishment. 

What  is  said  here  will  therefore  be  directed  to  other 
matters  that  are  of  more  interest  to  the  practical  workman, 
and  while  there  may  not  be  much  said  that  is  new,  it  will 
it  is  hoped  contain  suggestions  that  will  be  of  use. 

Turning  is  an  extensive  and  important  branch  of  wood 
work,  one  that  has  to  be  performed  in  nearly  all  wood 
shops,  and,  more  or  less,  on  all  kinds  of  work.  Every 
wood  workman  should  learn  plain  hand  turning ;  not 
elaborate  pieces,  but  such  things  as  are  met  with  in  gene- 
ral wood  work.  In  joinery,  circular  work  such  as  circle 
top  frames,  round  corners,  and  columns,  have  to  be  turned. 
In  cabinet  work,  although  turning  is  not  so  great  a  share 
as  in  former  times,  it  is  yet  a  large  part  of  the  whole. 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  159 

Pattern  makers  learn  to  turn  from  necessity,  and  the 
time  spent  in  this  way  is  more  than  compensated  in  the 
aid  it  gives  in  learning  bench  work. 

The  art  of  turning  in  wood  and  ivory  has  always  been 
considered  an  amusement,  and  there  is  nothing  in  the  whole 
range  of  industrial  processes  more  fascinating  than  to  shape 
pieces  in  a  lathe ;  some  of  the  pleasure  is  to  be  ascribed  to 
the  fact  that  turning  is  performed  without  much  exertion, 
and  consists  rather  in  directing  the  tools  than  propelling 
them ;  yet  the  rapid  change  of  form  that  is  made  at  will, 
and  the  nice  skill  needed  in  some  of  the  finer  varieties  of 
work,  makes  it  a  most  agreeable  labour,  even  to  those 
who  are  continually  engaged  at  it.  The  hand  lathe  is 
chief  among  turning  machines ;  for  centuries  it  was  ap- 
plied to  all  manner  of  turning  in  both  wood  and  iron,  with- 
out any  attempt  to  guide  or  direct  the  cutting  tools  by 
mechanism,  but  of  late  years,  from  a  turning  lathe  we  have 
changed  to  turning  "  machinery,"  and  so  many  auxiliaries 
have  been  added,  that  the  lathe  can  now  be  considered  but 
little  more  than  a  device  to  rotate  the  piece.  In  wood 
turning,  all  the  coarser  kinds,  and  even  fine  work  when 
there  are  many  pieces  of  one  kind  to  be  made,  are  machine 
turned.  Nothing  connected  with  wood  cutting  has  been 
followed  more  persistently  than  automatic  turning,  and 
nothing  has  met  with  more  failure.  A  strange  fact  run- 
ning through  all  experiments  made  thus  far,  is  that  they 
have  been  successful  or  unsuccessful  as  they  have  cor- 
responded to  the  action  of  hand  tools.  Except  in  America 
but  little  has  been  attempted  in  automatic  turning  machi- 
nery ;  in  the  older  countries  labour  is  too  cheap,  and  less 
turning  in  wood  is  done. 

Hand  lathes  for  wood  turning  require  to  be  made  with 
more  care  in  some  respects  than  any  machine  used  in 


160  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

wood  work  ;  they  should  run  true  and  steady,  as  a  matter 
of  convenience,  and  of  necessity  as  well,  for  no  turner 
can  do  good  work  on  a  bad  lathe,  or  one  that  is  not 
in  order.  The  cones  should  be  of  cherry  or  mahogany, 
the  wood  thoroughly  seasoned,  and  laid  up  so  that  the 
joints  will  run  true.  Nothing  looks  worse,  nor  more  un- 
workmanlike, than  to  have  the  joints  in  a  set  of  lathe  cones 
to  run  in  a  zigzag  course ;  besides,  it  is  just  as  easy  to 
have  them  true,  by  planing  up  and  sawing  out  the  different 
layers,  and  then  gluing  them  up  on  the  spindle,  using  the 
small  cone,  which  should  be  of  iron,  and  screwed  on  the 
spindle,  to  clamp  them.  The  cones  should  be  for  a  com- 
mon hand  lathe  five  in  number,  rising  from  4  to  12  inches 
diameter.  The  spindle  should  have  long  bearings  of  hard 
brass  at  each  end.  There  is  something  strange  in  the  fact 
that  while  bearings  for  other  spindles  are  made  from  three 
to  four  diameters  in  length,  lathe  bearings  are  as  a  rule 
but  half  as  long  ;  and  still  more  strange  that  lathe  spindles 
should  have  a  small  point  bearing  at  the  end  any  more 
than  the  spindles  of  other  machines.  The  end  thrust  is 
great,  it  is  true,  and  must  be  resisted,  but  in  other  cases 
a  little  point  would  not  be  thought  of;  a  series  of  shallow 
collars  has  been  determined  in  engineering  practice  gene- 
rally, as  the  best  means  of  resisting  end  thrusts,  and  why 
not  in  a  lathe  ? 

Without  going  into  construction  of  lathes  any  further 
than  to  offer  suggestions  to  those  who  purchase  and  use 
them,  we  will  say,  that  if  turners  would  note  the  weak 
points  and  faults  in  hand  lathes,  and  dictate  their  con- 
struction in  such  particulars  as  need  improvement,  we 
should  soon  have  them  more  perfect. 

The  shear,  or  lathe  frame,  which  is  seldom  furnished 
with  the  lathe,  can  be  made  of  wood,  and  is  for  some  pur- 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  161 

poses  better  than  if  made  of  iron.  An  iron  shear  is  cold 
in  winter,  generally  too  narrow  on  top,  and  injures  the 
tools,  which  are  sure  to  come  in  contact  with  it.  For 
pattern  work,  and  the  heaviest  kind  of  wood  turning,  an 
iron  shear  is  for  some  reasons  best,  because  of  keeping  the 
heads  in  line,  and  the  weight  preventing  vibration  from 
pieces  that  are  out  of  balance. 

A  wooden  shear  should  be  made  of  dry  pine,  the  sides 
not  less  than  5  x  10  inches — 6  x  12  is  better — the  top 
covered  with  an  inch  board  of  ash  or  oak,  fastened  with 
wood  screws,  so  that  it  can  be  taken  off  and  replaced  when 
worn ;  this  preserves  the  shear  frame,  and  makes  a  hard 
surface  for  the  heads  to  slide  upon.  Lathe  shears  should 
in  setting  be  braced,  or  blocked  and  bolted,  to  a  wall 
whenever  practicable,  especially  when  there  is  more  than 
one  lathe  to  stand  on  a  single  frame,  otherwise  one  lathe 
will  disturb  another  in  starting  rough  stuff  that  is  out  of 
balance. 

A  wood  turner  needs  a  good  and  complete  set  of  tools. 
It  is  not  pretended  that  there  is  anything  new  in  the  sug- 
gestion, but  there  never  was  one  more  needed ;  there  is 
no  accounting  for  the  want  and  the  imperfection  of  tools 
that  can  be  seen  with  nine  out  of  every  ten  wood  lathes 
in  use.  A  man  may  at  bench  work  manage  to  get  along 
without  tools  of  the  best  temper,  or  those  properly  ground, 
but  no  one  can  turn  with  satisfaction,  or  with  success, 
without  both,  because  turning  depends  upon  a  sharp  keen 
edge,  and  in  most  cases  a  true  bevel,  which  forms  a  rest 
for  the  edge  of  the  tools.  The  finest  steel  only  will  hold  an 
edge,  and  even  then  not  on  all  kinds  of  wood,  so  that  scrap- 
ing tools  have  to  be  resorted  to.  Except  for  light  work,  the 
scraping  tools — cutting  off,  or  square  tools — and  nearly  all 
except  flat  chisels  and  gouges,  can  be  made  from  bars  of 


162  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

steel,  and  used  without  wooden  handles  ;  if  made  from  ^-in. 
or  j-in.  square  bar,  and  the  sharp  corners  ground  off,  they 
are  convenient  for  pattern  turning  at  least,  and  much 
safer  than  with  detachable  handles.  Tools  made  in  this 
way  should  be  longer  than  handled  tools;  for  pattern 
turning  they  may  be  from  16  to  20  inches  long  without 
inconvenience.  For  all  kinds  of  light  turning,  those  with 
handles  are  of  course  more  convenient. 

Tool  handles  and  other  fancy  articles  should  be  polished 
in  the  lathe  before  taking  them  out,  by  first  putting  on  a 
light  coat  of  linseed  oil  with  a  brush,  and  then  using 
shellac  varnish,  applied  with  a  woollen  rubber,  made  by 
doubling  heavy  cloth  to  make  two  to  four  thicknesses, 
and,  when  doubled,  about  3  inches  square.  Apply  the 
varnish  to  the  cloth,  then  hold  it  on  the  work,  pressing 
hard  enough  to  heat  and  dry  it ;  the  varnish  must  be  thick, 
and  the  operation,  to  be  successful,  done  rapidly. 

It  may  be  said  that  polished  work,  tool  handles,  for 
instance,  cannot  be  performed  by  automatic  lathes  ;  such 
work  cannot  be  made  smooth  enough  to  receive  the  polish, 
and  the  polishing  if  required  would  have  to  be.  at  any  rate 
a  second  and  independent  process. 

No  rules  of  much  value  can  be  given  to  aid  a  beginner 
in  learning  to  turn,  for  turning  is  an  operation  consisting 
almost  entirely  in  hand  skill.  One  thing,  however,  may 
be  suggested — cut,  instead  of  scrape,  with  the  tools.  The 
beginner  at  once  discovers  that  his  tools  will  not  catch 
when  scraping  or  dragging  on  the  wood  and  adopts  scraping 
from  a  sense  of  danger ;  he  may  at  the  same  time  discover 
that  if  used  in  this  way  the  edges  of  the  tools  are  at  once 
destroyed,  but  little  is  accomplished,  and  the  surfaces 
produced  are  very  rough. 

Machine  or  automatic  lathes,  as  they  may  be  called, 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  163 

consist  of  four  classes ; — First,  gauge  lathes,  with  a  slide 
rest  and  tool  carriage,  after  the  manner  of  an  engine  lathe, 
for  metal  working.  Second,  lathes  with  rotary  cutting 
tools,  that  have  a  compound  motion  of  the  wood  and  the 
cutters,  both  revolving.  Third,  excentric  lathes  for  turn- 
ing elliptical  or  other  irregular  forms.  Fourth,  chuck 
lathes,  hollow  mandrils,  or  rod  machines. 

The  gauge  lathe  was  invented  by  Bentham,  described 
in  his  patent  of  1793,  and  has  possibly,  under  some 
modification,  been  in  use  ever  since.  What  is  known 
as  the  Alcott  slide,  to  be  used  in  connection  with  an  ordi- 
nary hand  lathe,  is  but  a  modification  of  this  machine. 
The  principle  of  operation  consists  in  a  following  rest,  in 
front  of  which  is  a  roughing  gouge,  to  reduce  the  piece  so 
that  it  will  fit  the  rest ;  behind  this  rest  other  tools  follow, 
one  to  three  in  number,  as  the  work  may  require,  the 
rest  supporting  the  piece.  The  following  or  finishing  tools 
are  generally  mounted  upon  pivoted  falls,  which  slide  on 
patterns,  that  raise  and  lower  the  cutters  to  give  the 
required  shape  to  the  piece.  This  produces  duplicate 
pieces  very  rapidly,  but  if  the  profile  is  in  any  degree 
irregular  the  work  is  too  rough  for  any  but  the  rougher 
uses.  By  tumbling  the  pieces  in  a  cylinder  with  leather 
scrap,  after  they  are  thoroughly  dried  they  can  be  made 
smooth  enough  for  painted  work,  but  not  to  varnish  or 
polish.  Gauge  lathes  have  been  helped  out  of  this  diffi- 
culty of  making  rough  work  by  shearing  knives,  that 
come  down  diagonally  behind,  and  follow  the  rest,  cutting 
off  a  light  shaving  with  a  thin  tangental  edge,  correspond- 
ing to  the  action  of  a  hand  chisel  that  leaves  the  piece 
true  and  smooth.  This  device  has  been  extensively  and 
successfully  used,  and  manufacturers  need  have  no  fear  in 
adopting  it  for  any  work  to  which  it  can  be  applied. 

u  2 


164  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

If  a  gauge  lathe  is  to  be  used,  have  a  good  one.  It  was 
a  long  time  being  discovered  that  a  gauge  lathe  for  wood 
turning  required  to  be  as  accurately,  and  even  more  care- 
fully made,  than  an  engine  lathe  for  machine  fitting.  Such 
lathes  require  to  be  made  in  the  most  thorough  manner, 
and  will  cost  a  large  price  from  any  responsible  maker. 
If  the  amount  and  character  of  the  work  does  not  justify 
the  outlay  for  a  first-class  gauge  lathe,  it  is  better  to  do 
the  work  by  hand,  or  with  an  Alcott  slide,  than  to  buy  a 
cheap  one. 

The  spindle  bearings  of  gauge  lathes  should  be  made  of 
the  hardest  brass,  set  into  accurately  planed  seats,  so  that 
they  may  be  adjusted  or  renewed  without  trouble.  Centres 
project  6  to  10  inches  from  the  ends  of  the  spindles,  have 
sharp  points,  and  the  head  and  tail  points  must  come 
together  precisely,  and  keep  there,  that  is,  the  lathe  must 
keep  in  line ;  this  must  be  the  test  of  a  gauge  lathe,  and 
is  one  that  would  condemn  nine-tenths  of  all  the  engine 
lathes  in  use. 

Of  second  class,  of  lathes  with  rotary  tools  are  but 
little  used ;  the  cutters  and  the  wood  both  running  in 
circles,  and  cutting  intermittently,  make  rough  work  ;  it 
is  difficult  enough  to  produce  smooth  surfaces  with  either 
the  wood  tangental  to  the  cutters,  or  the  cutters  tangental 
to  the  wood,  without  having  two  circles  to  meet.  There 
has  been  a  limited  use  of  these  lathes  for  turning  hubs 
and  other  coarse  work,  but  nothing  to  merit  a  further 
notice  here.  We  suggest  to  wood  manufacturers  that 
whenever  they  find  this  compound  rotary  motion  of  both 
the  tools  and  the  piece  in  a  machine  to  do  cylindrical 
turning,  to  buy  some  other ;  it  is  a  subversion  of  the  true 
principles  of  wood  cutting,  and  as  such  should  be  em- 
ployed only  when  it  is  unavoidable. 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  165 

Excentric  lathes  for  oval  turning  are  among  those 
machines  which  require  special  knowledge  to  manage. 
The  Blanchard  lathe,  if  driven  at  its  utmost  speed,  may 
turn  from  five  to  seven  hundred  small  spokes  a  day,  the 
surface  so  rough  that  the  grinding  and  polishing  becomes 
a  more  important  matter  than  the  turning.  We  do  not 
want  to  find  fault  with  a  machine  so  long  and  so  success- 
fully used  as  the  Blanchard  lathe,  but  will  suggest  that 
if  instead  of  turning  six  hundred  spokes  on  one  machine, 
the  same  man  were  to  turn  three  hundred  each,  on  two 
machines,  and  turn  them  smooth,  a  great  gain  would  be 
made.  The  investment  in  machinery  would  be  something 
more,  but  this  is  a  small  matter,  to  be  rated  as  the  interest 
on  the  money,  and  is  balanced  by  a  small  daily  gain  in 
either  the  quantity  or  quality  of  the  work  performed. 
What  we  contend  for  is,  that  these  excentric  lathes  should 
be  better  made,  do  their  work  more  smoothly,  and  if  neces- 
sary keep  up  the  quantity  turned  by  increasing  the  number 
of  machines.  In  excentric  turning  the  rough  character  of 
the  work  is  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  cutting  being 
done  across  the  grain,  and  to  the  very  inferior  quality  of 
the  cutters  used;  these  are,  as  a  rule,  made  from  saw- 
plate  steel,  tempered  to  a  blue  only,  so  as  to  be  filed,  and 
the  edges  break  or  bend  as  soon  as  they  touch  any  bark 
or  grit.  The  plan  of  filing  answers  for  rough  work,  and 
plate-steel  is  good  enough  for  cutters,  but  it  should  be  of 
the  finest  quality,  carefully  tempered,  and  the  inside 
which  forms  the  edge  polished. 

The  best  lathes  for  excentric  turning  are  those  which 
have  the  reciprocating  movement  in  the  cutter-head,  a 
principle  which  is  followed  in  all  cases  except  for  spoke 
turning,  and  in  what  is  called  the  Handle  Lathe.  The 
fact  is  that  no  durable  and  substantial  machine  can  be 


166  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

made  that  has  its  spindles  and  driving  gearing  vibrating 
on  a  swing  frame.  The  lathes  used  for  turning  gun 
stocks  in  the  armories  are  the  best  in  use,  and  are  in  all 
cases  made  with  the  spindles  to  run  in  fixed  supports. 
Spoke-turning  machines  that  have  their  cutters  arranged 
to  act  lengthwise  the  piece,  parallel  to  the  fibre,  do 
smoother  work,  and  admit  of  several  pieces  being  worked 
at  the  same  time.  This  plan  is  one  employed  in  machines 
of  foreign  manufacture,  and  has  certainly  been  successful 
enough  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  the  Blanchard  lathe 
in  Europe.  It  is  therefore  suggested  to  manufacturers 
that  in  fitting  up  new  works,  or  in  increasing  old  ones, 
that  this  subject  of  elliptical  turning  be  more  carefully 
considered,  and  investigations  made  as  to  the  relative  cost 
of  grinding  and  polishing,  compared  with  the  turning,  also 
the  cost  of  turning  by  different  machines. 

The  cost  of  turning  is  the  wages  paid  for  operating  the 
machine,  with  its  wear  and  repairs  added ;  for  polishing, 
it  is  the  cost  of  the  labour,  the  wear  of  belts,  cost  of  glue, 
sand,  and  the  time  of  laying  the  belts.  A  little  gained  by 
fast  turning  may  be  easily  lost  in  finishing,  and  it  is  quite 
unfair  to  rate  the  capacity  of  a  machine  by  the  number  of 
pieces  that  may  be  turned  out,  regardless  of  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  done. 

With  handle  lathes  the  cutting  is  generally  done  in 
saws,  which  stand  the  bark  better  than  cutters,  and  do 
not  spring  the  piece  so  much.  A  cutter-head  with  six  or 
eight  cutters  to  do  the  same  amount  of  work  as  a  saw  that 
has  from  24  to  32  teeth,  must  displace  four  times  as  much 
wood  at  each  cut,  and  the  shock  and  strain  upon  the  piece 
is  nearly  in  the  same  proportion.  The  straighter  kinds 
of  handles,  such  as  sledge,  pick,  hammer,  and  hatchet 
handles,  can  be  turned  much  faster  with  cutters  than  with 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


167 


saws,  because  of  the  edges  being  broader,  and  the  feed 
proportionately  faster;  but  axe  handles,  or  any  handle 
that  has  short  turns  or  angles,  can  be  best  turned  with, 
saws.  The  true  plan  is  to  have  each  lathe  supplied  with 
both  saws  and  cutter-heads,  so  that  they  can  be  changed 
to  suit  the  kind  of  work  being  done. 

Chuck  turning  relates  to  parallel  rods  like  dowel  pins, 
chair  braces,  or  fence  pickets.  As  machines,  chuck  lathes 
are  simple,  efficient  and  labour-saving,  cost  but  little,  and 
should  be  used  whenever  there  is  anything  for  them  to 
do.  The  principle  of  their  operation  is  the  same  as  the 
hand  gauging  tool  shown  at  Fig.  62,  a  little  device  that 
should  be  among  the  tools  on  every  hand  lathe. 

FIG.  62. 


This  gauge  tool  is  used  in  turning  any  kind  of  parallel 
stuff,  dowel  pins,  wooden  screws,  gauge  stems,  in  fact  any- 
thing that  is  in  whole  or  in  part  straight.  Cabinet  turning, 
such  as  nulling,  cottage  spindles,  or  other  pieces  that  are 
turned  straight  before  being  moulded,  can  be  sized  much 
quicker  and  more  accurately  with  a  gauge  tool  than  with 
chisels. 


168  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

The  tools  are  made  of  cast  iron,  are  inexpensive,  and 
easy  to  operate.  One  stirrup  and  cutter  will  do  for  several 
sizes  by  exchanging.  The  only  fitting  in  making  gauge 
tools  is  to  bore  them  to  the  size  wanted  and  cut  away 
the  throat.  In  using  them  the  handle  runs  on  the  rest, 
and  should  be  held  down  firmly ;  some  of  the  first  experi- 
ments may  be  failures,  until  there  is  some  skill  acquired 
in  setting  the  cutter.  The  tool  will  either  go  perfectly 
straight,  which  is  its  natural  and  most  easy  course,  or  it 
will  not  go  at  all.  Although  but  little  known  they  have 
been  in  successful  use  for  years,  and  are  especially  needed 
in  turning  the  stems  of  wooden  screws,  and  other  pieces 
that  have  to  be  accurate. 


PATENTS  ON  WOOD  MACHINES. 

It  is  thought  that,  among  other  things,  a  short  article 
on  the  subject  of  inventions  and  patents  would  not  only 
be  of  interest,  but  probably  of  use.  All  engaged  in  wood 
manufacture — proprietors,  managers,  and  workmen — are 
at  some  time  either  afflicted  with  a  patent  mania  them- 
selves, or  brought  in  contact  with  it  in  others,  and  the 
little  that  has  been  written  or  is  known  of  the  history  of 
wood  machinery,  together  with  its  recent  rapid  develop- 
ment, has  been  not  only  favourable  to  invention,  but  also 
to  deception  and  mistakes.  If  anyone  before  investing 
in,  or  becoming  interested  in,  inventions,  or  in  applying 
for  patents  on  wood-working  machinery,  would  look  over 
the  statistics  of  the  past,  and  see  how  little  has  been 
derived  from  invention,  or  even  from  the  monopoly  of 
manufacture,  by  patents  on  wood  machines,  he  would  need 
no  other  caution  to  deter  him  from  what  will,  in  nine  cases 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  169 

out  of  ten,  result  in  a  loss  of  time  and  money.  Even  in 
the  case  of  the  few  master  patents,  on  principles,  we  use 
the  word  advisedly,  such  as  Wood  worth's  patent  on  planers, 
or  Blanchard's  patent  on  excentric  lathes,  but  little,  if  any- 
thing, has  been  gained  to  the  patentees.  The  greater 
share  of  the  revenue  was  consumed  in  litigation,  to  defend 
against  infringement,  a  consequence  that  is  natural,  and 
will  always  occur  in  any  attempt  to  monopolize  the 
manufacture  of  a  machine  after  it  becomes  popular.  There 
is  something  about  public  sentiment  in  the  United  States 
that  rebels  against  patent  monopoly  and  favours  attempts 
to  evade  patents,  which  renders  it  difficult  to  introduce 
patents,  and  still  more  difficult  to  defend  them  against 
infringement  if  they  are  really  useful. 

Leaving  out  the  considerations  already  named,  which 
ought  to  be  quite  enough  to  save  at  least  the  greater 
share  of  what  is  each  year  lost  in  wood  machinery 
patents,  there  is  one  other  too  often  lost  sight  of,  the 
difficulty  and  expense  of  ascertaining  the  novelty  of  im- 
provements. Foreign  patents  or  foreign  practice  become 
legal  evidence  against  the  novelty  of  inventions  in  our 
courts,  and  it  is  only  in  late  years  that  we  have  had  facili- 
ties for  acquiring  and  using  such  evidence  or  acquainting 
ourselves  with  what  exists  and  what  has  been  done  abroad. 
Our  Patent  Office,  with  all  the  good  features  of  its  system, 
and  the  examination  it  gives  to  cases,  does  not  dare  to 
give  any  validity  to  a  patent,  or  to  confer  a  single  right 
that  is  indefeasible  or  not  conditional ;  it  simply  gives 
the  inventor  power  to  prosecute  others  for  infringement, 
and  actual  damages  on  condition  of  being  the  true  and 
original  inventor,  as  against  his  opponent  and  everyone 
else.  The  writer  has  spent  no  little  time  and  money  in 
securing  patents  on  wood-cutting  machines,  most  of  which 


170  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

he  has  found  to  be  anticipated  by  other  and  older  in- 
ventors, and  without  having  in  any  case  realized  as  much 
as  the  same  amount  of  effort  would  have  earned  if  it  had 
been  applied  to  other  business. 

What  it  is  intended  to  notice  here,  is  not  so  much  the 
policy  of  patenting  improvements,  as  the  founding  of  busi- 
ness schemes  with  patent  monopoly  as  a  base,  or  con- 
stituting a  part  of  the  capital.  Any  failure  of  a  manu- 
facturing business  is  felt  far  and  wide,  both  as  a  loss 
of  capital  and  an  -injury  to  the  reputation  of  the  branch  of 
work  io  wliich  it  belongs ;  and  in  establishing  a  business, 
as  in  building  a  house,  there  is  required  a  good  founda- 
tion, which  in  manufacturing  should  be  a  demand  and 
market  for  the  product,  skill  to  produce  it  at  as  low  or  a 
lower  cost  than  others,  and  capital  to  do  the  business  upon. 

The  estimates  of  a  market  should  be  based  upon  a  care- 
ful review  of  existing  facts  and  probable  future  changes, 
how  far  the  articles  to  be  made  are  a  luxury  or  a  staple  of 
necessity,  and  how  others  have  or  are  succeeding  in  the 
same  line. 

In  the  matter  of  skill,  depend  upon  mechanical  ability, 
experience,  shop  system,  and  good  manipulation ;  if  patents 
are  to  be  a  consideration,  balance  them  against  some  other 
intangible  consideration,  but  not  against  money,  credit, 
machines,  or  material.  If  a  patent  earns  anything,  it  is 
easy  to  set  it  off  to  a  separate  account,  but  never  safe  to 
use  the  money  until  it  is  earned,  which  is  done  when  a 
patent  represents  manufacturing  capital. 

In  the  matter  of  capital,  no  matter  what  the  amount, 
let  it  consist  in  cash  or  actual  assets ;  there  was  a  time  in 
wood  manufacturing  when  it  was  comparatively  sale  to 
borrow  money  for  one  or  two  years  and  invest  it  in  lumber 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  171 

and  machines,  but  that  time  has  gone  by ;  competition  is 
now  so  great,  and  our  establishments  have  grown  so  large, 
that  the  manufacturer  with  a  small  or  a  borrowed  capital 
has  but  little  chance  against  the  one  who  has  a  large 
capital  and  owns  it.  In  making  special  and  new  articles 
of  manufacture,  or  in  districts  not  connected  with  our 
great  cities  by  rail  or  water  communication,  or  when  the 
business  is  carried  on  to  meet  a  local  demand,  these  rules 
may  not  apply :  they  are  safe  premises,  however,  to  reason 
from  in  starting  a  new  business. 


PUKCHASING  MACHINERY. 

There  is  no  knowledge  more  important  to  a  wood 
manufacturer  than  what  kind  of  machines  he  should 
purchase  to  be  used  in  his  business. 

Operators  generally  understand  the  subject  better  than 
proprietors,  and  machines  are  usually  bought  upon  their 
judgment  and  advice ;  only  so  far,  however,  as  a  choice 
between  the  machines  of  different  makers,  for  it  is  very 
seldom  that  they  can  get  just  what  is  wanted,  no  matter 
how  well  they  may  understand  what  is  needed  for  the 
work. 

Wood  machines  are  made  in  America  at  this  time 
like  boots  and  shoes,  or  shovels  and  hatchets.  You  do 
not,  as  in  most  other  countries,  prepare  a  specification  of 
what  you  want,  as  to  capacity,  belt  power,  adjustments, 
and  so  on,  but  must  take  what  is  made  for  the  general 
market.  That  this  is  not  right  need  not  be  argued,  and 
that  it  is  as  much  the  fault  of  the  purchaser  as  it  is  of 
the  maker  is  also  true. 


172  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

Purchasers  are  too  apt  to  barter  and  beat  down  the 
price  to  the  lowest  point,  and  then  go  to  another  maker  to 
see  if  he  will  furnish  machines  for  less,  just  as  though  it 
was  a  circular  saw,  a  roll  of  belting,  or  a  barrel  of  oil  that 
was  wanted.  This  not  only  degrades  the  business  of 
machine  manufacturing,  and  provokes  competition  and 
bad  work,  but  it  leads  to  a  state  of  affairs  that  allows 
almost  anyone  to  engage  in  machine  making  without  the 
engineering  knowledge  and  skill  that  is  needed. 

This  is  not  the  way  to  construct  and  sell  machines  that 
will  earn  the  most  money.  They  should,  whenever  prac- 
ticable, be  specially  adapted  to  the  work  to  be  performed, 
by  makers  who  not  only  understand  the  nature  of  the  work, 
and  the  principles  of  machines,  but  have  proper  facilities 
for  designing  and  modifying  them,  without  enhancing  their 
cost.  In  most  cases  a  man  who  is  to  run  a  machine  upon 
some  special  work  knows  how  it  should  be  made  and 
arranged  for  that  work,  and  he  should  have  it  arranged 
accordingly.  If  a  machinist  applied  to  has  not  the  skill 
or  the  engineering  knowledge  to  modify  the  machine,  go 
to  one  who  has  such  knowledge,  and  the  chances  are  that 
what  is  saved  at  such  a  shop  by  skill  and  system  will  fully 
make  up  for  the  extra  cost  of  the  changes  needed.  This 
commercial  system  of  machine  manufacture  has,  among 
other  troubles,  led  to  a  kind  of  conditional  sale  system ; 
machines  are  bought,  and  what  is  stranger,  furnished, 
on  trial.  The  purchaser  is  afraid  to  trust  his  own  judg- 
ment, the  maker  is  not  to  be  depended  upon,  the  manager 
or  the  operators  have  no  choice  except  between  the  stereo- 
type machines  in  the  market,  and  the  builder  is  allowed 
to  send  a  machine  on  trial,  or  rather,  to  send  one  with 
a  guarantee  of  its  working. 

The  way  to  reform  this,  which  all  must  admit  as  a 


.^ 

THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK.  173 

wrong  system,  is  for  the  machine  operators  to  educate 
themselves  in  the  principles  of  constructing  as  well  as 
operating  wood  machinery ;  to  study  the  theory  of  the 
action  of  cutting  edges,  the  proportion  and  composition 
of  bearings,  the  diameter  and  length  of  spindles,  the 
size  of  pulleys  and  width  of  belts,  speeds,  and  everything 
pertaining  to  wood  manufacture. 

They  must  not  depend  upon  machinists,  who  as  a  rule 
know  nothing  of  wood  work,  to  do  this.  It  is  altogether 
a  different  thing  from  making  lathes  and  planer  drills 
for  metal  work;  tools  which  machinists  understand  and 
continually  use  in  their  own  business.  Wood  machines 
are  not  only  peculiar  and  difficult  to  build,  but  are  also 
peculiar  to  operate.  A  machinist  is  expected  to  run  a 
lathe  or  planer,  to  drill,  or  do  vice  work,  but  on  the  con- 
trary it  is  only  a  few  wood  workmen  who  can  run  the 
different  machines  found  in  a  wood  shop,  so  that  it  is 
unreasonable  to  expect  a  machinist,  without  specifications, 
to  fill  an  order  satisfactorily  for  a  machine  which  even  the 
operator  may  not  understand. 

In  ordering  machines,  therefore,  take  time  to  investigate 
their  adaptation  to  what  you  want  to  do ;  if  the  work  is 
of  a  regular  character  the  public  reputation  of  a  machine 
may  be  trusted,  but  it  is  due  to  the  dignity  of  any  shop  to 
at  least  attempt  to  improve  their  manipulation  by  modi- 
fying machines  whenever  useful  improvement  suggests 
itself.  In  the  matter  of  shafting,  belts,  and  steam  power, 
we  have  already  offered  suggestions  to  aid  in  their  selec- 
tion. 


174  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 


SUPPLYING  MATERIAL. 

"A  penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned,"  is  a  maxim  as 
old  as  it  is  true;  applied  to  the  purchase  of  lumber  and 
wood  supply  for  an  establishment  it  means  that  a  dollar 
saved  in  the  manner  of  supplying  material,  can  be  added 
to  the  profits  account. 

As  to  purchasing  sawed  lumber,  it  is  only  a  commercial 
question  of  quality  and  value,  but  other  plans  of  procuring 
material,  without  its  passing  through  what  is  called  the 
lumber  market,  are  open  to  some  suggestions  for  those 
who  are  within  reach  of  timber. 

A  great  many,  in  manufacturing  articles  from  wood, 
never  think  of  anything  but  to  purchase  sawed  lumber 
and  recut  it,  often  into  small  pieces,  when  they  had  just 
as  well  cut  their  stuff  from  round  timber,  saving  thereby 
a  great  share  of  the  cost,  and  at  the  same  time  securing 
better  material.  As  a  rule,  200  feet  of  lumber  will  cost 
as  much  as  one  cord  of  timber ;  a  cord  of  timber,  128 
cubic  feet,  is  as  a  solid  equal  to  something  over  1500 
feet  of  sawed  stuff  board  measure ;  allowing  one-half  lor 
saw-kerf  and  waste,  it  would  make  when  sawed  766  feet 
of  lumber.  A  good  sawyer,  with  an  efficient  machine,  will 
cut  up  four  cords  of  logs  8  feet  long  into  framing  pieces  or 
turning  stuff  in  a  day ;  the  waste,  after  furnishing  fuel  to 
drive  the  saw,  is  generally  \vorth  enough  to  pay  for  the 
sawing,  and  something  over;  as  one-half  is  allowed  for 
waste  it  should  certainly  make  a  cord  of  firewood,  wrorth 
as  much  as  a  cord  of  round  timber. 

This  would  give  766  feet  of  prepared  stuff  at  the  same 
price  that  would  have  been  paid  for  200  feet  of  lumber, 
with  the  difference  that  what  has  been  cut  from  timber 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  175 

is  cut  to  dimensions,  while  the  other  would  be  in  planks 
or  boards,  and  subject  to  a  much  greater  waste  in  re- 
working than  the  stuff  sawed  by  hand. 

Leaving  all  nice  calculations  out,  we  may  safely  assume 
that  when  a  cord  of  round  or  split  timber  costs  as  much 
as  200  feet  of  lumber,  the  stuff  saved  from  the  timber 
will,  when  cut  out,  not  cost  more  than  one-half  as  much 
as  an  equal  quantity  of  merchantable  lumber,  and  that  if 
any  considerable  part  of  the  lumber  used  in  a  manufac- 
turing establishment  could  be  produced  in  this  way,  it 
alone  would  make  a  large  profit. 

As  to  the  question  of  quality,  or  worth,  which  is  the 
same  thing ;  timber  that  is  cut  to  be  sold  by  the  cord 
is  usually  of  smaller  size  and  a  younger  growth  than  what 
is  taken  for  saw-mill  logs,  and  is  for  that  reason  sounder 
and  brighter  than  the  older  growth.  If  it  is  split  before 
sawing  it  must  be  reasonably  straight  grained,  and  is 
sawed  nearly  with  the  grain ;  being  in  short  lengths  of 
8  feet  or  less,  the  lumber  in  any  case  is  much  straighter 
in  grain  than  if  it  had  been  cut  at  a  regular  lumber  mill, 
where  .the  logs  would  have  been  twice  as  long.  In  other 
words,  the  lumber  from  a  crooked  tree  is  straight  or  cross 
grained  as  the  lengths  into  which  it  is  cross-cat  before 
slitting. 

It  might  be  said  in  reference  to  this  system,  that  round 
timber  cannot  be  obtained;  however,  ther-e  are  but  few 
places  in  the  United  States,  except  in  large  cities,  or  the 
prairie  countries,  where  such  timber  cannot  be  procured, 
by  simply  letting  its  want  be  known.  The  farmers  during 
the  winter  are  glad  to  haul  in,  or  deliver  such  stuff  on  the 
railways,  canals,  or  rivers,  and  only  too  glad  to  avoid  the 
saw-log  business,  which  is  by  no  means  a  favourite  one. 
Many  of  the  largest  wood  manufacturing  establishments 


176 


THE   OPERATORS    HANDBOOK. 


have  already  adopted  this  system,  so  far  as  they  can,  and 
have  continued  it  successfully  for  years ;  it  is  not  expected, 
of  course,  that  we  are  giving  them  information,  but  a 
great  many  never  think  of  it. 

FIG.  64. 


For  this  kind  of  sawing  there 
is  needed  a  saw  framed  and 
arranged  as  in  Figs.  63  and 
64,  the  general  dimensions  as 
follows ; — 

Length  of  main  frame,  14  feet. 
Height  of  main  frame,  24  inches. 
Length  of  running  board  or  table. 

13  feet. 

Length  of  bearing  rails,  16  feet. 
Diameter  of  saw,  36  to  40  inches. 
Diameter  of  mandril,  2^  inches. 
Length  of  mandril,  42  inches. 
Size  of  pulley,   12  inches  diameter, 

8  inches  face. 
Speed  of  the  saw,  1200  revolutions  per 

minute. 
Power  required  from  10  H.P. 

The  table  is  merely  a  hard 
wood  board,  interposed  between 
the  timber  and  the  rollers,  split 
throughout  its  length,  but  held 
together  by  the  cross  cleats  on 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  177 

the  ends ;  the  angle  irons  seen  on  the  end  view,  at  a,  are  used 
to  gauge  the  stuff;  other  plans  can  be  used,  which  may  be 
more  convenient ;  one  is  to  have  swinging  gauges  fixed 
to  the  main  frame  outside  the  moving  table,  so  that  they 
will  swing  round  out  of  the  way  when  the  timber  is  moved ; 
another  is  to  have  lines  scored  on  the  table,  indicating 
inches  or  smaller  divisions  if  needed.  In  sizing  stuff  that 
is  to  be  squared  after  it  is  cut  into  deals,  a  number  of 
pieces  can  be  piled  on  top  of  each  other  and  cut  at  one 
time  to  save  time  and  walking.  Six  cords  of  timber  have 
been  cut  into  pieces  for  hoe  handles,  rake  handles,  and 
general  turning  lumber,  in  a  day,  on  one  of  these  saws. 

Table  legs,  bedstead  and  chair  stuff,  with  the  greater 
share  of  the  lumber  used  in  furniture  manufacture,  can  be 
prepared  in  this  way,  either  to  size,  or  in  deals  to  be  recut 
after  seasoning. 


HINTS  ON  BENCH  WORK. 

It  requires  some  temerity  to  write  about  bench  opera- 
tions in  wood  work ;  a  hand  art  almost  as  old  as  the  world, 
or  at  least  as  old  as  civilization,  ought  by  this  time  to  be 
perfect,  and  it  would,  no  doubt,  have  been  perfected  long 
ago,  so  far  as  hand  skill  is  concerned,  if  it  were  not  con- 
tinually modified  by  the  influence  of  machines,  so  that 
bench  work,  like  other  things,  must  progress  and  improve. 

If  a  reason  was  wanting,  there  is  another  which  would 
serve  for  the  introduction  of  this  article — it  will  instruct 
apprentices.  In  most  trades  there  are  inferior  branches 
with  which  an  apprentice  may  begin,  and  then  become 
gradually  skilled  in  his  art  by  changing  to  those  more 
difficult  as  he  learns,  but  this  is  hardly  true  of  bench  work 

N 


178  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

in  wood  manufacture.  An  apprentice  may  clean  the 
shop,  rip  out  stuff,  sand-paper,  and  knock  about  at  the 
beginning,  but  as  soon  as  he  goes  to  the  bench  he  has  at 
once  to  begin  some  of  the  most  difficult  things  that  he  will 
ever  have  to  perform,  which  are  to  dress  up  stuff,  make 
joints,  and  keep  a  set  of  planes  in  order.  It  is  therefore 
expected  that  this  part  of  the  book  will  not  be  without 
its  use,  although  somewhat  disconnected  from  the  general 
subject  of  wood-machine  operation. 


BENCHES  FOB  WOOD  WORK. 

Long  custom  has  established  certain  forms  of  benches 
for  different  kinds  of  wood  work,  and  while  almost  any  kind 
of  wood  work  may  be  done  on  almost  any  kind  of  bench, 
there  are  in  this,  as  in  most  old  customs,  some  good  reasons 
at  the  bottom.  The  cabinet  maker  wants  a  tail-screw, 
the  carriage  maker  a  standing  or  high  vice,  and  the  pattern 
maker  the  back  tray,  while  the  carpenter  does  not  care 
much  what  his  bench  may  be,  so  long  as  it  is  long  and 
wide. 

Since  the  general  introduction  of  machinery  to  do  the 
planing,  benches  have  been  made  higher  than  when  work 
was  done  by  hand,  an  improvement  that  prevents  stooping. 
Thirty-two  inches  high  was  once  a  limit,  but  now  benches 
36  inches  high  are  often  more  convenient  than  if  lower. 
In  any  case  they  should  be  as  high  as  possible. 

The  main  part  of  a  bench  is  the  top,  and  next  the  vice. 
For  carriage  work  the  vice  is  the  main  part;  there  is, 
however,  no  harm  in  having  both  as  good  as  can  be.  The 
tops  should  never  be  made  of  a  whole  plank ;  they  are 
much  better  if  made  of  scantling,  bored  at  intervals  of 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  179 

12  inches  for  dowels,  and  the  whole  drawn  together  with 
|-inch  bolts.  One  of  the  bolts  can  pass  through  the 
standing  leg  of  the  vice,  which  should  always  be  gained 
into  and  come  flush  with  the  top  of  the  bench,  and  not 
mortised  into  the  under  side,  in  this  way  it  generally 
splits  the  top ;  besides,  the  top  will  not  stand  the  wear 
opposite  the  vice  jaw.  When  a  tail-screw  is  to  be  used 
the  top  cannot  well  be  made  throughout  of  scantling ;  a 
wider  piece  will  be  needed  on  the  front  side,  to  frame  the 
tail-vice  in,  but  it  should  be  as  narrow  as  possible,  and 
the  rest  of  the  top  in  pieces.  Always  make  benches  large 
enough,  the  constant  tendency  is  to  have  them  too  small, 
especially  with  cabinet  makers,  who  often  own  their 
benches,  and  move  them  like  a  tool  chest  to  wherever 
they  are  engaged ;  this  has  no  doubt  been  a  reason  for 
the  small  size  that  cabinet  makers'  benches  are  generally 
made.  A  tray  at  the  back  is  the  common  plan,  and  at 
the  risk  of  violating  the  maxim  laid  down  at  the  beginning 
about  old  custom,  we  must  say  it  is  wrong.  No  one  wants 
to  hunt  small  tools  out  of  a  tray ;  it  is  never  deep 
enough  for  the  stuff  on  the  bench  to  clear  plane 
handles,  is  always  full  of  dirt  and  shavings,  and  at  best 
can  be  considered  as  nothing  more  than  a  plan  to  save 
width.  If  the  stuff  being  worked  is  wide  enough  to  cover 
a  tray,  the  tray  is  of  no  use ;  if  it  is  not,  there  is  still 
no  need  of  the  tray,  six  inches  more  of  width  added  to 
the  top  will  be  found  more  convenient  for  any  kind  of 
work,  from  carving  to  wagon  making.  A  flush  top  is 
easier  kept  clean  and  clear,  but  if  it  must  be  divided  into 
a  working  top  and  a  tool  compartment,  raise  the  tool  plat- 
form above  the  bench,  either  by  laying  on  a  pine  board 
S8  inches  wide,  or,  if  the  bench  is  less  than  30  inches  wide, 
raise  this  board  up  6  jnches  from  the  bench,  like  a  shelf, 

N  2 


180  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

leaving  room  so  that  planes  will  go  under  it,  or,  what  is 
better,  leave  a  place  clear  at  the  front  for  planes.  This 
will  be  found  more  convenient  for  small  tools,  and  more 
orderly  than  a  tray.  A  cabinet  bench,  to  be  convenient, 
should  not  be  less  than  30  inches  wide,  and  8  feet  long, 
the  centre  of  the  main  vice  20  inches  from  the  end,  the 
top  3 J-  to  4  inches  thick  for  the  whole  of  its  width,  for  it 
nearly  always  costs  more  to  fit  up  a  backboard  than  the 
extra  lumber  is  worth,  if  the  tops  are  made  of  uniform 
thickness  throughout:  these  sizes  are  nearly  twice  as 
large  as  such  benches  are  usually  made.  The  amount 
that  a  man  may  earn  on  a  bench  does  not  often  lead  to 
affluence,  even  when  all  conditions  are  favourable,  and 
to  render  this  amount  as  large  as  possible,  after  skill, 
the  next  most  important  thing  is  order  and  good  tools, 
neither  of  which  can  be  had  without  bench  room. 

A  vice  jaw  for  wood  work,  except  wagon  and  carriage 
making,  should  be  from  8  to  10  inches  wide,  3  to  3J  inches 
thick,  of  seasoned  hard  wood,  set  at  a  sufficient  angle  to 
prevent  it  from  twisting  when  long  pieces  are  set  in  verti- 
cally. The  standing  leg  should  be  the  same  size,  and,  as 
before  said,  gained  into  the  top  depth,  not  full  depth,  but 
from  1J  to  2  in. 

Benches  for  pattern  making  require  to  be  wider,  longer, 
and  higher.  A  good  plan  for  pattern  benches  is  to  make 
them  continuous  along  one  or  more  sides  of  the  building. 
The  tops  need  not  be  more  than  3  inches  thick  :  if  covered 
with  pine,  it  prevents  bruising  the  work,  and  is  easier  to 
true  up.  Such  benches  should  be  32  to  34  inches  high,  34 
inches  wide,  and  if  in  sections,  at  least  10  feet  long.  The 
vice  should  be  strong,  of  the  same  proportions  before  given. 
The  screw  will  be  more  convenient  if  of  a  coarse  pitch,  so 
as  to  act  quickly.  The  square  thread  screws,  coming  into 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  181 

use,  are  well  adapted  to  pattern  makers,  vices,  or  for  any 
work  that  requires  much  use  of  the  vice.  Always  have 
the  screw  and  slide  bar  arranged  so  that  the  vice  can  be 
drawn  out  or  closed  up  to  any  distance,  without  helping 
the  bottom  along  with  the  hands;  this  can  be  done  by 
putting  a  bearing  over  the  top  of  the  screw  inside  the  nut 
behind  the  standing  leg,  and  by  having  a  well-fitting  collar 
key,  and  also  a  good  running  bar  at  the  bottom.  It  is 
better  to  spend  a  little  time  in  fitting  a  vice  properly, 
than  to  stoop  or  sit  down  to  pull  out  the  vice  jaw  at  the 
bottom  each  time  it  is  changed  for  different  sizes  of  stuff. 

Wagon  and  carriage  makers  mainly  use  parallel  iron 
vices,  which  are  so  much  better  for  the  purpose  that  there 
is  no  need  of  describing  how  wooden  vices  should  be  made. 


BENCH  TOOLS  FOR  WOOD  WORK. 

It  was  remarked  in  the  Introduction  that  we  sometimes 
see  a  man  without  much  physical  strength,  and  apparently 
without  exertion,  do  more  work  than  a  strong  one  who 
labours  harder.  No  fact  is  better  known  to  wood  work- 
men than  this,  but  the  lesson  it  teaches  is  generally 
neglected,  and  the  matter  regarded  as  a  kind  of  mysterious 
dispensation,  over  which  there  is  no  control.  There  is  no 
greater  mistake;  workmen  may  have  peculiar  faculties 
mentally  that  enable  them  to  succeed  better  than  others 
when  their  work  is  very  diversified  and  intricate,  but  so 
far  as  bench  work  is  concerned,  nearly  all  the  difference 
can  be  traced  to  the  tools  used ;  a  fast  workman  generally 
has  plenty  of  them,  kept  in  order,  and  in  the  right  place. 
Hand  skill  is  of  course  requisite,  but  hand  skill  is  a 
result  of  good  tools,  and  the  same  spirit  that  promotes 


182  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

order  ensures  speed.  A  man  may  do  good  work  witn 
poor  tools,  and  if  well  skilled  may  do  a  day's  work  with 
poor  tools,  but  such  a  man  takes  no  pride  in  his  business, 
and  could  do  proportionally  more,  and  with  greater  ease, 
if  he  had  better  tools. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  speak  intelligently  or  specifi- 
cally about  tools  without  assuming  some  special  kind  of 
work  to  govern  the  matter,  but  as  this  would  exceed  the 
brief  limits  assigned  to  the  subject  here,  we  will  endeavour 
to  treat  it  in  a  general  way. 

The  first  and  leading  tools  are  bench  planes,  a  set  of 
which  should  consist  of  one  26-inch  jointer  2|-inch  iron, 
one  24-inch  jointer  2f-inch  iron,  one  22-inch  fore-plane 
2^-inch  iron,  one  jack  plane  2-J-inch  iron,  all  double  irons ; 
one  jack  plane  2-inch  single  iron,  one  handle  smooth  plane 
2^-inch  iron,  one  common  smooth  plane  2-inch  iron,  one 
block  plane  2-inch  single  iron — nine  planes  in  all,  as  a 
set  of  bench  planes.  To  these  standard  planes  may  be 
added  a  panel,  plough,  and  right  and  left  rebate  planes. 
Other  planes,  such  as  hollows  and  rounds,  match  and 
moulding  planes,  are  usually  shop  tools,  to  be  used  in 
common. 

For  chisels  an  outfit  should  consist  of  a  set  of  firmer- 
chisels,  from  |th  to  2  in.;  two  long  firmer  -  chisels  for 
paring,  1  £  and  If  in. ;  two  socket  chisels  for  heavy  work, 
f  and  1 J  in. ;  bench  gouges,  from  -J  to  2  in. ;  and  a  1-in. 
blunt  scraping  chisel.  All  should  be  in  order,  handled, 
and  kept  in  racks  at  the  back  of  the  bench,  within  easy 
reach.  For  saws  there  will  be  needed  one  rip  and  one 
cross-cut  hand  saw,  one  panel  saw,  one  each  12  and  8  inch 
back  saws,  with  others  of  a  special  character,  such  as  a 
ramp  saw,  bow  saw,  and  dovetail  saw. 

Planes,  chisels,  and  saws,  are  the  main  tools  in  bench 
work,  and  should  be  of  the  best  quality. 


THE   OPERATORS   HANDBOOK. 


183 


For  the  convenience  of  apprentices  who  desire  to  select 
a  set  of  tools,  the  following  list  is  appended;  it  may 
contain  many  more  than  are  needed,  but  will  be  none  the 
less  useful  for  reference ; — 


Planes,  as  before. 

Chisels  and  gouges,  as  before. 

Hand,  back,  and  other  saws,  as 

before. 

3,  5,  and  7  inch  try-squares. 
One  carpenter's  steel  square. 
Bench  and  tack  hammers. 
One  wood  mallet. 
One  5-inch  hand-axe. 


-rule. 


One  24-inch  single  fold  slide 
Oil-stone,  slip,  and  oil-can. 
One  pair  4-inch  spring  dividers. 
One  pair  8-inch  steel  compasses. 
One  wooden  brace,  with  full  set 

of  bits. 
One  set  auger-bits,  from  |  to  1 

inch. 
Two  spoke-shaves,  2^  and  3  inch. 


To  these  may  be  added  a  number  of  little  things  which, 
although  hardly  to  be  included  in  a  list  of  bench  tools, 
will  often  be  wanted,  such  as  a  chalk-line  and  spool,  bench 
brush,  strap  block,  sand-paper  block,  wood  straight-edges, 
plumb-line,  spirit  level,  or  bench  hooks,  which  can  be 
supplied  as  needed,  but  should  be  owned  by  the  workman, 
and  kept  at  the  bench,  each  in  its  proper  place. 

When  a  man  learns  bench  work,  he  should  do  so 
thoroughly.  He  should  study  and  observe  the  various 
modes  of  performing  work  which  he  sees  around  him,  and 
estimate  their  advantages.  The  fact  that  bench  work  is 
mainly  done  by  the  piece  in  wood  shops  would  be,  as 
one  would  think,  a  sufficient  incentive  for  workmen  to 
study  it  carefully,  with  a  view  to  increase  their  earn- 
ings, but  strange  to  say  the  facts  do  not  permit  such  a 
conclusion. 

Twenty-five  cents  a  day  saved  or  made  by  having  a 
good  bench  and  a  complete  set  of  tools,  amount  to  75 
dollars  a  year,  almost  enough  to  pay  for  an  outfit  of  tools, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  greater  satisfaction  with  which  the 
work  can  be  executed. 

In  using  bench  planes  it  is  a  good  plan  to  learn  to 


184  THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK. 

plane  with  one  hand  as  much  as  possible,  especially  with 
jack  planes. 

To  keep  both  hands  on  a  plane  makes  one  of  two  things 
necessary,  either  to  walk  along  and  carry  the  body  with 
the  plane  at  each  stroke  ;  or  else  to  plane  by  short  strokes, 
making  a  kind  of  chipping  operation.  A  man  can  stand 
in  one  position  and  plane  the  length  of  a  piece  4  feet  long, 
with  one '  hand,  and  propel  the  plane  with  just  as  much 
force,  and  when  he  has  learned  it,  with  more  force  than 
if  he  used  both  hands.  If  a  brace  pin  is  used  in  the  side 
of  the  bench,  he  can,  in  roughing  out  with  a  jack  plane, 
do  twice  as  much  in  a  given  time  as  he  could  by  grasping 
the  plane  in  both  hands  and  moving  his  body  with  it. 
Granting  this  proposition,  which  will  be  fully  proved  by 
an  experiment  and  following  it  until  learned,  is  it  not 
strange  that  we  rarely  see  planes  used  in  one  hand  ? 

Another  thing  connected  with  dressing  up  stuff  which 
may  save  time  and  labour,  is  the  use  of  the  try  square. 
Supposing  that  a  piece  is  being  jointed  or  squared  in  the 
vice,  the  custom  in  trying  is  to  remove  the 
plane,  put  the  square  on  the  piece  with  the 
blade  on  the  top,  and  then  stoop  down  to 
look  under  the  blade,  generally  low  enough 
to  bring  the  eye  level  with  the  piece.  This 
can  be  done  with  half  the  trouble  and  with 
more  accuracy  by  placing  the  head  of  the 
square  on  the  top  of  the  piece,  as  in  Fig.  65, 
and  looking  down  along  the  blade  at  the  side. 
To  do  this  the  plane  need  not  be  removed  from  the  piece, 
the  body  is  kept  erect,  and  in  the  case  of  a  thin  board 
instead  of  having  but  its  thickness  to  gauge  from,  there  is 
the  whole  length  of  the  square  blade  to  be  sighted.  At 
first  it  will  seem  awkward  to  use  a  square  in  this  manner, 


THE  OPERATOR'S  HANDBOOK.  185 

and  difficult  to  have  it  balance  on  the  top  of  the  stuff,  but 
after  a  little  practice  it  becomes  natural  and  easy,  even  on 
the  thinnest  pieces,  and  it  would  be  equally  awkward  to 
return  to  the  old  method. 

These  two  examples  are  cited  as  preliminary  to  saying 
that  very  old  practice  may  be  capable  of  improvement. 
In  fact  the  tendency  is  to  move  in  a  particular  groove,  to 
hold  to  old  habits,  and  the  tenacity  with  which  they  are 
retained  is  generally  as  the  length  of  time  they  have  been 
practised;  so  strong  has  this  influence  been  in  opposing 
improvement  and  progress  that  we  are  justified  in  accept- 
ing any  old  custom  with  a  certain  degree  of  distrust,  not 
of  its  being  wrong  in  the  main,  for  anything  long  practised 
by  intelligent  people  is  generally  right,  but  this  statement 
must  be  qualified  by  adding,  so  far  as  it  goes.  The  very 
confidence  that  causes  us  to  cling  to  old  usages  is  but  a 
recognition  of  the  truth  of  the  proposition. 

In  America  this  conservatism  is  but  weak  compared  to 
older  countries,  and  in  this  fact  is  found  one  of  the  strongest 
reasons  for  the  progress  made  in  improving  hand  manipu- 
lation and  industry  of  all  kinds.  Kapid  changes  may 
sometimes  lead  to  errors  which  a  greater  respect  for  old 
customs  would  have  enabled  us  to  avoid,  but  upon  the 
whole  the  gain  is  vastly  greater  than  the  loss. 

It  is  therefore  contended  that  because  bench  practice  in 
wood  work  is  old,  it  is  no  reason  why  it  cannot  be  improved, 
especially  as  it  has  been  greatly  modified  and  changed 
by  the  introduction  of  machinery. 


THE    END. 


INDEX. 


ACCIDENTS,  causes  of,  69. 

from  winding  clothing,  77. 

from  flying  cutters,  79. 

• from  set  screws,  77. 

from  saws,  71. 

from  winding  belts,  75. 

from  wood  machines,  69. 

in  sawing,  to  guard  against,  71. 

precautions  against,  78. 

Arrangement  of  machines,  4. 
of  shafting,  diagram  of,  21. 

BAND  saw  blades,  121,  122. 

saw  blades,  joining,  122,  123. 

saws,  brazing  forge  for,  121. 

saws,  edge  strain  of,  124,  125. 

saws,  for  recutting,  127. 

saws,  for  resawing,  the  con- 
struction of,  127. 

saws,  on  the  use  of,  121. 

saws,  the  width  of,  125. 

saws,  the  teeth  of,  125. 

saws,  the  speed  of,  125, 126. 

Bearings,  brass,  92. 

how  to  fit,  90. 

how  to  examine,  97. 

metal  for,  91. 

moulded,  87. 

to  melt  the  metal  for,  89. 

to  mould,  88. 

the  cause  of  heating,  97. 

the  care  of,  96. 

Belt  joints,  diagrams  of,  84. 

Belts  for  wood  machines,  proportions 
of,  32. 

for  cutters,  width  of,  57. 

hook  joints  for,  84. 

how  to  throw  on,  76. 

injury  by  rubbing,  59. 

main,  material  for,  33. 

of  leather  and  india-rubber,  38. 

of  webbing  for  high  speeds,  36. 

plans  of  joining,  33. 

round  and  flat,  36. 

single  and  double,  86. 

tractile  power  of,  32. 


Belts,  treatment  of,  36. 

tension  of,  35. 

to  make  run  true,  59. 

danger  of  throwing  on,  76. 

weight  of,  35. 

Belting  for  wood  machinery,  32. 
Benches  for  wood  work,  178. 

for  cabinet  work,  180. 

for  pattern  making,  180. 

tool  racks  for,  179. 

Bench  tools  for  wood  work,  181. 

tools,  a  list  of,  182. 

Bench  work,  177. 

—  work,  how  to  save,  183, 184. 
Boilers  for  wood  manufactories,  13. 

manner  of  covering,  16. 

i   Boring  bits,  speed  of,  54. 

CEILINGS,  flush,  convenience  of,  10. 

Circular  saws,  danger  from,  71. 

gauges  for,  73. 

pieces  thrown  from,  72. 

rigidity  of,  55. 

speed  of,  55. 

Clearing  wood  shops,  42. 

Countershaft,  diagram  of,  27. 

Countershafts,  bearings  for,  30. 

erecting,  25. 

hanger-plates  for,  26. 

laying  out  the  position  of,  28. 

speed  of,  54. 

to  set  parallel,  29. 

Couplings  for  shafting,  23. 

Cutter-bolts,  overstraining,  80. 

I   material  for,  80. 

|    Cutter-heads,  diagrams  of,  103,  104. 
I   Cutters,  angle  of,  for  hard  wood,  103. 

I   bevels  for,  108. 

I   bolts  for,  79. 

I   of  scraping  machines,  106. 

of  solid  steel,  147. 

|   of  thin  steel,  110,111. 

the  angle  of,  101. 

the  bevel  of,  105. 

Cutting  parallel  to  and  across    the 
fibre,  99. 


INDEX. 


187 


Cutting,  propositions  relating  to,  100. 

saws,  as  an  example  of,  99. 

wood,  the  principle  of,  98. 

DAMPER  regulators,  steam,  17. 
Difficulties  of  text-books,  v. 
Division  of  labour  in  Europe,  iv. 

EFFECT  of  machines  on  labour,  v. 

FACTORIES,  general  arrangement  of,  2. 
Feeding  furnaces,  manner  of,  18. 
Fire,  precautions  against,  49. 

rooms,  arrangement  of,  18. 

sources  of,  49. 

to  guard  against,  50. 

Firing,  irregularity  of,  14. 

the  manner  of,  17. 

Floors,  supports  for,  11. 

sheathing  for,  10. 

with  beams  and  joists,  10. 

Furnace,  cross  section  of,  17. 

elevation  of,  16. 

longitudinal  section  of,  15. 

Furnaces  for  wood  factories,  15. 
general  dimensions  for,  16. 

GAUGE  lathes,  character  of,  164. 
Girders  for  wood  factories,  8. 

supports  for,  9. 

Grinding  cutters,  the  object  of,  111. 

hard  stones  for,  108. 

Grindstones,  arrangement  of,  112. 
for  cutters,  108. 

HANDBOOKS,  how  prepared,  via. 
Hand-feeding  machines,  143, 144. 
Hand    labour     supplanted    by   ma- 
chines, iii. 

Handling  material,  37. 
Hanger-plates,  mode  of  fastening,  27. 
Hangers  for  line  shafts,  23. 

strength  of,  30. 

Hard  wood,  speed  of  cutting,  56. 
Height  of  factories,  affected  by  the 

floor  framing,  8. 
Hoisting  machinery,  40. 

machines,  danger  of,  41. 

Hook-belt  joints,  manner  of  making, 

34. 


JOBBING  mill,  arrangement  of,  3, 

diagram  of,  3. 

Joiners'  stuff,  mill  for,  6. 

LATHES,  excentric,  cost  of  turning  by, 

167. 

excentric,  165. 

excentric,  the  arrangement  of, 

165. 

for  gauge  turning,  163. 

for  rod  turning,  167. 

shears  for,  161. 

the  construction  of,  159, 160. 

tools  for,  161. 

with  finishing  cutters,  163. 

— —  with  rotary  tools,  164. 
Lime  feed  water  for  boilers,  13. 
Line  shafting,  arrangement  of,  4. 
Lubricating  compounds,  97. 

tallow,  cups  for,  95. 

wood  machines,  92. 

Lumber  from  round  timber,  174, 175. 

machine,  dimensions  of,  176. 

machine  to  prepare,  176. 

supplying,  174. 

to  procure,  175. 

MACHINE  lines  in  buildings,  31. 

lines,  manner  of  making,  31 . 

operating  as  a  trade,  iv. 

Machines,  foundations  for,  32.  . 

how  manufactured,  171. 

levelling  and  fixing,  32. 

purchasing,  171. 

resistance  of  in  starting,  20,  60. 

setting,  30. 

stopping  and  starting,  60. 

Magazines  for  shavings,  45. 

Main  driving  pulleys,  diameter   of, 

54. 
Material,  moving,  means  of,  41. 

room  for  moving,  37. 

trucks  for  moving,  37. 

Measurements,  by  succession,  31. 
Mortising,  149. 

bits,  chuck  for,  154. 

chisels,  to  prepare,  155. 

machines  for  joiner  work,  151. 

machines,     reciprocating,     149, 

150. 
machines,  rotary,  150, 151. 


188 


INDEX. 


Mortising  machines,  rotary,  for  chair 

work,  153. 
plans  for  compared,  151, 152. 

OIL,  means  of  applying,  94. 

feeders,  wicks  for,  95. 

paraffine,  93. 

waste  of,  93. 

On  hand-feeding,  143. 

PATENTS,  168. 

as  capital,  170. 

on  thin  cutters,  111. 

the  scope  of,  169. 

value  of,  169. 

Planers,  carriage,  131. 

Planer  carriages,  objects  of,  131. 

for  surfacing,  136. 

parallel,  134. 

parallel,  the  principles  of,   134, 

135. 

scraping,  137. 

traversing,  132. 

used  in  Europe,  134. 

with  chain  feed,  136. 

Planing  and  jobbing  mill,  difference 

between,  5. 

cylinders,  speed  of,  54. 

machines,  classification  of,  130. 

machines,  starting,  136. 

mill,  arrangement  of,  7. 

mill,  diagram  of,  6. 

mill,    general    dimensions    for 

details,  6. 

the  amount  of  edge  used  in,  132. 

the  speed  of,  133. 

to  increase  the  speed  of,   132, 

133. 
Pneumatic  apparatus,  danger  of  fire 

from,  48. 

conductors  for  wood  shops,  43. 

fans,  construction  of,  43. 

fans,  diagrams  of,  44. 

pipes  for  sweepings,  47. 

pipes,  hoods  for,  45. 

pipes,  material  for,  45. 

Polishing,  as  a  process,  138. 

Barker's  machine  for,  139. 

machine,  drawings  for,  1 42. 

wheels,  how  to  construct,  139. 

Posts,  position  of,  4. 


Power  for  grinding,  and  other  details, 
58. 

needed  for  American  wood  ma- 
chines, 57. 
—  required,  table  for,  58. 

to  drive  machines,  56. 

value  of,  59. 

waste  of,  59. 

Processes,  nature  of,  in  wood  work,  1. 

Pulleys,    arrangement    of,    on    line 
shafts,  75. 

balancing,  22. 

for  line  shafting,  22. 

loose,  fit  of,  62. 

loose,  means  of  oiling,  64. 

loose,  oil  ways  for,  63. 

loose,  packing  for,  63. 

shifting,  61. 

shifting,  arrangement  of,  64. 

shifting,  with  idle  shaft,  61. 

QUALIFICATIONS  of  an  operator,  v. 

REPAIRING,  an  economical  plan  for,  82. 

instructions  for,  85. 

outfit  for,  81. 

room  for,  84. 

the  difficulty  of  understanding, 

83. 

tools  for,  81. 

wood  machinery,  80. 

Repairs,  cost  of,  80. 

SAW  benches,  arrangement  of,  114. 

benches,  for  jointing,  114. 

mandrils,  dimensions  for,  116. 

mandrils,  manner  of  fitting,  117. 

Saws,  circular,  113. 

circular,  guides  for,  114. 

counter-balances  for,  128. 

cross-cutting  carriages  for,  120. 

for  cross-cutting,  120. 

form  of  teeth  for,  117. 

for  recutting,  128. 

for  scroll  cutting,  128. 

gauges  for,  114. 

guides,  drawings  of,  115. 

how  to  set,  117. 

jig,  to  set  up,  128. 

jig,  foundations  for,  128. 

jig,  men  to  operate,  129. 

on  the  use  of,  119. 


INDEX. 


189 


Saws,  packing  for,  115. 

reciprocating,  128. 

scroll,  sharpening,  130. 

scroll,  the  teeth  of,  129. 

—  setting  machine  for,  118. 
Shafting,  advantages  of  several  cross 

lines,  22. 

arrangement  of,  20. 

dimensions  for,  21. 

for  wood  shops,  19. 

how  to  level,  23. 

imperfection  of,  19. 

severe  duty  of,  in  wood  shops, 

20. 

to  line  horizontally,  24. 

Shaping  cutters,  how  to  prepare,  147. 

deep  cutters  for,  148. 

hand  feed  for,  142. 

machines,  cutters  for,  75. 

machines,  danger  of,  73. 

machines,  guards  for,  73. 

machines,  holding  clamp  for,  74. 

machines,  origin  of,  146. 

machines,  speed  of,  148. 

machines  with  two  spindles,  145. 

spindles,  bearings  of,  149. 

the  meaning  of,  142. 

Sharpening  tools,  106. 

moulding  cutters,  109. 

emery  wheels  for,  106-109. 

planing  knives,  device  for,  107. 

tools  for,  112. 

-bench  tools  for,  112. 
Shavings  magazine,  diagram  of,  46. 
Shifters  for  belts,  65. 

—  for  belts,  arrangement  of,  65. 
Shops,  system  in,  113. 

Speed  of  line  shafting,  54. 

of  reciprocating  machines,  55. 

of  cutting  edges,  52. 

diversity  of  opinions  of,  51. 

— —  rules  for,  52. 

tables  for,  53. 

of  wood  machines,  51. 


Starting  machines,  shock  of,  68. 
Steam  engines,  details  of,  13. 

requirements  of,  12. 

power  for  wood  factories,  11. 

TEMPERING  tools,  87. 

Tenoning,  156. 

machines,  old  and  new,  156. 

machines,  the  carriages  of,  157. 

Tension  pulleys,  66. 

pulleys,  advantages  of,  67. 

pulleys,  construction  of,  68. 

—  pulleys,  diagrams  of,  68. 

Text-books  for  wood-machine  opera- 
tors, ix. 

how  far  useful,  vii. 

the  reason  they  are  wanting, 

vii. 

their  importance,  v. 

Tools,  taking  care  of,  112. 

Tramways  for  wood  shops,  41,  42. 

Trucks,  advantages  of,  40. 

construction  of,  38. 

details  of,  and  dimensions  for, 

39. 

diagrams  for,  38. 

Try  square,  how  to  use,  184. 

Turned  work,  to  polish,  162. 

Turning,  158. 

Turning,  gauge  tool  for,  167. 

hand  lathes  for,  159. 

the  importance  of,  158. 

UNIVERSAL  machines,  144,  145. 

WATER  pipes,  freezing  of,  18. 
Wood-dust,  inflammable  nature  of,  48. 
Wood  machines,  analogy  between,  vii. 

machines,  danger  from,  70. 

machines,  how  improved,  146. 

machines,  improvements  in,  146. 

work,  divisions  of,  1. 

work  has  no  text-books,  vi. 

in  America,  extent  of,  vi. 


Just  Published,  in  crown  ±to,  cloth,  gilt,  $6  or  25s. 


A  TREATISE 

THE  CONSTKUCTION  AND  OPERATION 

OF 

WOOD-WORKING  MACHINES: 


CONTAINING 


A  HISTORY  OF  THE  ORIGIN  AND  PROGRESS  OF  THE 

MANUFACTURE  OF  WOOD-CUTTING  MACHINERY 

SINCE  THE  YEAR  1790, 

fllustrateb  bg  mmienras  |)Iates  attfr 


THE  MODERN  PRACTICE  OF  PROMINENT  ENGINEERS  IN 
ENGLAND,  FRANCE,  AND  AMERICA. 

BY  J.  KICHAKDS, 

MECHANICAL   ENGINEER. 

NEW  YORK : 
E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,  446,  BECOME  STREET. 

LONDON: 
48,  CHARING  CROSS. 


The  attention  of  Engineers,  Builders,  and  Wood  Manu- 
facturers, is  called  to  this  work  as  one  that  cannot  fail  to 
be  of  advantage  in  their  business. 

Although  wood  conversion  is  an  extended  and  impor- 


tant  interest,  both  in  Home  and  Foreign  manufactures,  and 
although  immediately  connected  with  general  engineering 
matters,  such  as  ship-building,  bridge-building,  and  rail- 
way equipment,  it  has  thus  far  remained  without  such 
text-books  as  have  contributed  so  much  to  the  develop- 
ment of  other  branches  of  industry. 

The  application  of  machinery  to  wood  conversion  is 
the  subject  of  special  interest  at  this  time,  because  of 
the  increased  cost  of  skilled  labour,  a  condition  that  must 
be  mainly  met  by  a  more  thorough  and  extended  applica- 
tion of  machines  in  the  various  branches  of  wood  work. 

The  Treatise  is  directed  to  this  object,  and  contains 
explanations  of  the  principles  that  govern  wood-cutting, 
with  full  instructions  as  to  the  best  manner  of  construct- 
ing and  operating  wood-working  machines,  their  care 
and  management,  with  other  useful  information  that  can- 
not fail  to  be  worth  many  times  the  cost  of  the  book  to 
those  engaged  or  connected  with  wood  manufacture,  the 
equipment  of  railways,  or  supplying  engineering  plant. 

The  work  includes  an  interesting  history  of  the  leading 
facts  connected  with  the  origin  and  progress  of  machines 
for  wood  conversion  in  Europe  and  America ;  with  dis- 
sertations on  the  various  operations  of  sawing,  planing, 
shaping,  boring  and  turning  wood,  based  upon  the  ex- 
perience of  a  practical  engineer  who  has  for  twenty  years 
been  engaged  in  designing,  constructing,  and  operating 
standard  and  special  machines  for  wood  manufacture. 

It  contains  twenty-five  folding  plates,  and  nearly  one 
hundred  full-page  illustrations  of  English,  French,  and 
American  Wood-working  Machines  in  modern  use,  selected 
from  the  designs  of  prominent  engineers.  The  engravings 
are  finely  executed,  consisting  mainly  of  true  elevations. 


Extracts  from  Notices  of  the  Work  by  leading  Scientific  Journals. 


"  With  the  exception  of  a  very  few  imperfect  articles  in 
encyclopaedias,  two  or  three  papers  read  before  scientific 
societies,  and  the  description  of  special  machines  contained 
in  patent  specifications  and  in  the  pages  of  technical  journals, 
such  as  our  own,  the  subject  has  been  left  untouched;  and 
until  the  appearance  of  the  book  now  before  us,  there  was,  so 
far  as  we  are  aware,  none  that  could  be  referred  to  for  inform- 
ation as  to  how  wood  machines  should  be  constructed  and 
managed.  Under  these  circumstances,  Mr.  BICHAEDS'  Treatise 
is  doubly  welcome ;  it  is  welcome  in  the  first  place,  because  it 
supplies  a  want,  and  in  the  next  place  because  it  supplies  it 
well.  .  .  .  Mr.  EICHAEDS  devotes  two  sections  of  his  work  to 
a  consideration  of  wood-working  machinery  generally,  and  to 
an  explanation  of  the  principles  that  govern  wood-cutting; 
these  explanations  being  accompanied  by  data  concerning  hand- 
power  operations  and  the  performance  of  the  same  work  by 
machines.  ...  It  contains  information  that  will  be  appre- 
ciated by  a  large  circle  of  readers  besides  those  specially 
interested  in  the  construction  of  wood-working  machinery." — 
Engineering,  Nov.  8,  1872. 

"One  of  the  few  technical  works  of  originality  and  merit 
that  have  recently  appeared.  The  plan  adopted  by  the  au- 
thor is  to  notice  in  a  general  way  the  leading  operations  of 
wood  conversion,  with  the  construction  and  operation  of  ma- 
chines in  modern  use  ;  introducing  such  rules  and  treating  of 
such  laws  as  have  been  fixed  by  practice  and  experience,  and 
have  come  within  the  knowledge  of  the  writer  within  an  ex- 
tended experience  in  designing  and  constructing  both  standard 

and  special  machines  for  wood  work The  illustrations 

form  an  important  feature  of  the  work The  descriptive 

letter-press  and  the  vast  amount  of  information  about  the 
various  kinds  of  wood  work  will  make  this  work  indispensable 
to  all  who  are  either  makers  or  users  of  wood-working  ma- 
chines."— Mechanic's  Magazine,  Nov.  16,  1872. 

"  It  is  a  full  and  intelligent  account  from  the  pen  of  a  prac- 
tical engineer,  of  the  construction  and  operation  of  these  useful 
implements,  which  are  every  day  becoming  more  of  necessity 

o 


where  there  is  a  strain  on  the  ordinary  powers  of  production. 
A  closing  word  is  due  to  the  illustrations,  which  are  as  copious 
as  they  are  well  executed." — British  Trade  Journal,  Nov.  1, 1872. 

"  Its  publication  supplies  a  want,  and  the  execution  of  the 
work  is  for  the  most  part  all  that  could  be  desired.  The  author 
has  his  subject  well  in  hand,  and  his  practical  experience  is 
well  seconded  by  his  literary  ability.  The  book  is  carefully 
printed,  and  the  illustrations  well  engraved." — Building  News, 
Nov.  15,  1872. 

"  If  Mr.  BICHAEDS'  work  were  one  of  many  on  the  same  subject, 
it  would  possess  an  intrinsic  value  as  an  exposition  of  the  opinions 
of  a  man  practically  engaged  in  the  construction  of  the  machines 
of  which  he  treats  ;  as  it  is  the  only  work  of  the  kind  yet  pub- 
lished, it  cannot  fail  to  be  of  very  great  interest  to  those  engaged 
in  similar  pursuits,  and  to  those  who  employ  and  superintend  the 
operation  of  wood-working  machines The  work  con- 
tains one  hundred  and  sixteen  excellent  engravings,  which  are 
mainly  shaded  elevations." — English  Mechanic  and  World  of 
Science,  Dec.  13,  1872. 

"  Mr.  EICHABDS  has  written  on  a  subject  with  which  he  has  a 
thoroughly  practical  acquaintance,  and  he  has  succeeded  in  pro- 
ducing a  treatise  which  should  certainly  be  in  the  hands  of  all 
users  of  wood-working  machinery,  and  which,  moreover,  will  be 
of  much  interest  to  engineers  generally.  In  conclusion  we 
should  state  that  the  work  is  illustrated  by  no  less  than  one 
hundred  and  seventeen  well-engraved  plates,  showing  examples 
of  every  class  of  wood-working  machinery  by  the  leading  makers 
in  this  country,  in  America,  and  on  the  Continent,  while  it  is 
admirably  printed,  and  its  general  get-up  reflects  credit  on 
all  concerned  in  its  production." — Engineering,  Dec.  20,  1872. 
Second  notice. 

"  The  work  contains  all  the  information  which  those  who  are 
particularly  interested  in  wood-working  machines  are  likely 

to  require If  it  had  not  been  for  pressure  on  our 

space,  we  had  intended  to  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  book  ; 
but  no  abstract  would  do  justice  to  the  valuable  information 
which  Mr.  RICHARDS  furnishes All  builders  who  pos- 
sess machinery  of  this  kind,  or  who  intend  to  purchase  some, 
ought  to  study  attentively  this  book." — The  Architect,  Dec.  28, 
1872. 


LIST  OF  SUBJECTS  TREATED  OF. 


History  of  "Wood-working  Machines  since  1790. 

Engineering  Progress  in  Machine  Construction. 

Invention  as  an  Element  in  Engineering. 

The  Past  and  the  Future  of  Machine  making. 

On  Wood-cutting  Machines  in  general. 

The  Relation  between  Hand  and  Power  Operations  in  Woodwork  and 

the  Principles  that  govern  them. 
American  and  English  Wood  Machines. 
French  Wood  Machines. 
Machine  Labour-saving. 
Combination  in  Wood  Machines. 
Framing  of  Machines. 
Patterns  for  Castings. 
Bearings  for  Shafts  and  Spindles. 
Sizes,  Proportions,  and  manner  of  Constructing. 
Shafting  for  Wood  Manufactures. 
Rotary  Balancing. 
Resawing  Machinery. 
Band  Saws  and  Band  Sawing. 
Band  Sawing  Machinery. 
Jig  Saws. 

Slitting  and  Cross-cut  Saws. 
Cutting  and  Cutters. 
Planing  Machinery. 
Mortising  Machinery. 
Turning  Machinery. 
Shaping  Machinery. 
Boring  Machinery. 
Dovetailing  Machinery. 
Cutting  Machines  with  Direct  Action. 
Pneumatic  Conductors  for  Clearing  Wood  Shops. 
Belt  Contact  and  other  matters  connected  with  High  Speeds. 
Machine  Operating. 


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